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Of Commerce
by David Hume
The greater part of mankind may be divided into two classes；
that of shallow thinkers； who fall short of the truth； and that
of abstruse thinkers； who go beyond it。 The latter class are by
far the most rare： and I may add； by far the most useful and
valuable。 They suggest hints； at least； and start difficulties；
which they want； perhaps； skill to pursue； but which may produce
fine discoveries； when handled by men who have a more just way of
thinking。 At worst； what they say is uncommon； and if it should
cost some pains to comprehend it； one has； however； the pleasure
of hearing something that is new。 An author is little to be
valued； who tells us nothing but what we can learn from every
coffee…house conversation。
All people of shallow thought are apt to decry even those of
solid understanding； as abstruse thinkers； and metaphysicians；
and refiners； and never will allow any thing to be just which is
beyond their own weak conceptions。 There are some cases； I own；
where an extraordinary refinement affords a strong presumption of
falsehood； and where no reasoning is to be trusted but what is
natural and easy。 When a man deliberates concerning his conduct
in any particular affair； and forms schemes in politics； trade；
oeconomy； or any business in life； he never ought to draw his
arguments too fine； or connect too long a chain of consequences
together。 Something is sure to happen； that will disconcert his
reasoning； and produce an event different from what he expected。
But when we reason upon general subjects； one may justly affirm；
that our speculations can scarcely ever be too fine； provided
they be just； and that the difference between a common man and a
man of genius is chiefly seen in the shallowness or depth of the
principles upon which they proceed。 General reasonings seem
intricate； merely because they are general； nor is it easy for
the bulk of mankind to distinguish； in a great number of
particulars； that common circumstance in which they all agree； or
to extract it； pure and unmixed； from the other superfluous
circumstances。 Every judgment or conclusion； with them； is
particular。 They cannot enlarge their view to those universal
propositions； which comprehend under them an infinite number of
individuals； and include a whole science in a single theorem。
Their eye is confounded with such an extensive prospect； and the
conclusions； derived from it； even though clearly expressed； seem
intricate and obscure。 But however intricate they may seem； it is
certain； that general principles； if just and sound； must always
prevail in the general course of things； though they may fail in
particular cases； and it is the chief business of philosophers to
regard the general course of things。 I may add； that it is also
the chief business of politicians； especially in the domestic
government of the state； where the public good； which is； or
ought to be their object； depends on the concurrence of a
multitude of causes； not； as in foreign politics； on accidents
and chances； and the caprices of a few persons。 This therefore
makes the difference between particular deliberations and general
reasonings； and renders subtilty and refinement much more
suitable to the latter than to the former。
I thought this introduction necessary before the following
discourses on commerce； money； interest； balance of trade； &c。
where； perhaps； there will occur some principles which are
uncommon； and which may seem too refined and subtile for such
vulgar subjects。 If false； let them be rejected： But no one ought
to entertain a prejudice against them； merely because they are
out of the common road。
The greatness of a state； and the happiness of its subjects；
how independent soever they may be supposed in some respects； are
commonly allowed to be inseparable with regard to commerce； and
as private men receive greater security； in the possession of
their trade and riches； from the power of the public； so the
public becomes powerful in proportion to the opulence and
extensive commerce of private men。 This maxim is true in general；
though I cannot forbear thinking； that it may possibly admit of
exceptions； and that we often establish it with too little
reserve and limitation。 There may be some circumstances； where
the commerce and riches and luxury of individuals； instead of
adding strength to the public； will serve only to thin its
armies； and diminish its authority among the neighbouring
nations。 Man is a very variable being； and susceptible of many
different opinions； principles； and rules of conduct。 What may be
true； while he adheres to one way of thinking； will be found
false； when he has embraced an opposite set of manners and
opinions。
The bulk of every state may be divided into husbandmen and
manufacturers。 The former are employed in the culture of the
land； the latter work up the materials furnished by the former；
into all the commodities which are necessary or ornamental to
human life。 As soon as men quit their savage state； where they
live chiefly by hunting and fishing； they must fall into these
two classes； though the arts of agriculture employ at first the
most numerous part of the society。 Time and experience improve so
much these arts； that the land may easily maintain a much greater
number of men； than those who are immediately employed in its
culture； or who furnish the more necessary manufactures to such
as are so employed。
If these superfluous hands apply themselves to the finer
arts； which are commonly denominated the arts of luxury； they add
to the happiness of the state； since they afford to many the
opportunity of receiving enjoyments； with which they would
otherwise have been unacquainted。 But may not another scheme be
proposed for the employment of these superfluous hands？ May not
the sovereign lay claim to them； and employ them in fleets and
armies； to encrease the dominions of the state abroad。 and spread
its fame over distant nations？ It is certain that the fewer
desires and wants are found in the proprietors and labourers of
land； the fewer hands do they employ； and consequently the
superfluities of the land； instead of maintaining tradesmen and
manufacturers； may support fleets and armies to a much greater
extent； than where a great many arts are required to minister to
the luxury of particular persons。 Here therefore seems to be a
kind of opposition between the greatness of the state and the
happiness of the subject。 A state is never greater than when all
its superfluous hands are employed in the service of the public。
The ease and convenience of private persons require； that these
hands should be employed in their service。 The one can never be
satisfied； but at the expence of the other。 As the ambition of
the sovereign must entrench on the luxury of individuals； so the
luxury of individuals must diminish the force； and check the
ambition of the sovereign。
Nor is this reasoning merely chimerical； but is founded on
history and experience。 The republic of SPARTA was certainly more
powerful than any state now in the world； consisting of an equal
number of people； and this was owing entirely to the want of
commerce and luxury。 The HELOTES were the labourers： The SPARTANS
were the soldiers or gentlemen。 It is evident； that the labour of
the HELOTES could not have maintained so great a number of
SPARTANS； had these latter lived in ease and delicacy； and given
employment to a great variety of trades and manufactures。 The
like policy may be remarked in ROME。 And indeed； throughout all
ancient history； it is observable； that the smallest republics
raised and maintained greater armies； than states consisting of
triple the number of inhabitants； are able to support at present。
It is computed； that； in all EUROPEAN nations； the proportion
between soldiers and people does not exceed one to a hundred。 But
we read； that the city of ROME alone； with its small territory；
raised and maintained； in early times； ten legions against the
LATINS。 ATHENS； the whole of whose dominions was not larger than
YORKSHIRE； sent to the expedition against SICILY near forty
thousan