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in the process called Analysis or the Interpretation of Facts；
which has been defined as the application to facts of such general
conceptions as may fix the important characteristics of the
phenomena； and present them permanently in their true relations。
He too was the first to point out； what even in our own day is
incompletely appreciated； that nature； including the development of
man； is not full of incoherent episodes like a bad tragedy； that
inconsistency and anomaly are as impossible in the moral as they
are in the physical world； and that where the superficial observer
thinks he sees a revolution the philosophical critic discerns
merely the gradual and rational evolution of the inevitable results
of certain antecedents。
And while admitting the necessity of a psychological basis for the
philosophy of history； he added to it the important truth that man；
to be apprehended in his proper position in the universe as well as
in his natural powers； must be studied from below in the
hierarchical progression of higher function from the lower forms of
life。 The important maxim； that to obtain a clear conception of
anything we must 'study it in its growth from the very beginning；'
is formally set down in the opening of the POLITICS； where； indeed；
we shall find the other characteristic features of the modern
Evolutionary theory； such as the 'Differentiation of Function' and
the 'Survival of the Fittest' explicitly set forth。
What a valuable step this was in the improvement of the method of
historical criticism it is needless to point out。 By it； one may
say； the true thread was given to guide one's steps through the
bewildering labyrinth of facts。 For history （to use terms with
which Aristotle has made us familiar） may be looked at from two
essentially different standpoints； either as a work of art whose
＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇ or final cause is external
to it and imposed on it from without； or as an organism containing
the law of its own development in itself； and working out its
perfection merely by the fact of being what it is。 Now； if we
adopt the former； which we may style the theological view； we shall
be in continual danger of tripping into the pitfall of some A
PRIORI conclusion … that bourne from which； it has been truly said；
no traveller ever returns。
The latter is the only scientific theory and was apprehended in its
fulness by Aristotle； whose application of the inductive method to
history； and whose employment of the evolutionary theory of
humanity； show that he was conscious that the philosophy of history
is nothing separate from the facts of history but is contained in
them； and that the rational law of the complex phenomena of life；
like the ideal in the world of thought； is to be reached through
the facts； not superimposed on them … ＇Greek text which cannot be
reproduced＇。
And finally； in estimating the enormous debt which the science of
historical criticism owes to Aristotle； we must not pass over his
attitude towards those two great difficulties in the formation of a
philosophy of history on which I have touched above。 I mean the
assertion of extra…natural interference with the normal development
of the world and of the incalculable influence exercised by the
power of free will。
Now； as regards the former； he may be said to have neglected it
entirely。 The special acts of providence proceeding from God's
immediate government of the world； which Herodotus saw as mighty
landmarks in history； would have been to him essentially disturbing
elements in that universal reign of law； the extent of whose
limitless empire he of all the great thinkers of antiquity was the
first explicitly to recognise。
Standing aloof from the popular religion as well as from the deeper
conceptions of Herodotus and the Tragic School； he no longer
thought of God as of one with fair limbs and treacherous face
haunting wood and glade； nor would he see in him a jealous judge
continually interfering in the world's history to bring the wicked
to punishment and the proud to a fall。 God to him was the
incarnation of the pure Intellect； a being whose activity was the
contemplation of his own perfection； one whom Philosophy might
imitate but whom prayers could never move； to the sublime
indifference of whose passionless wisdom what were the sons of men；
their desires or their sins？ While； as regards the other
difficulty and the formation of a philosophy of history； the
conflict of free will with general laws appears first in Greek
thought in the usual theological form in which all great ideas seem
to be cradled at their birth。
It was such legends as those of OEdipus and Adrastus； exemplifying
the struggles of individual humanity against the overpowering force
of circumstances and necessity； which gave to the early Greeks
those same lessons which we of modern days draw； in somewhat less
artistic fashion； from the study of statistics and the laws of
physiology。
In Aristotle； of course； there is no trace of supernatural
influence。 The Furies； which drive their victim into sin first and
then punishment； are no longer 'viper…tressed goddesses with eyes
and mouth aflame；' but those evil thoughts which harbour within the
impure soul。 In this； as in all other points； to arrive at
Aristotle is to reach the pure atmosphere of scientific and modern
thought。
But while he rejected pure necessitarianism in its crude form as
essentially a REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM of life； he was fully conscious
of the fact that the will is not a mysterious and ultimate unit of
force beyond which we cannot go and whose special characteristic is
inconsistency； but a certain creative attitude of the mind which
is； from the first； continually influenced by habits； education and
circumstance； so absolutely modifiable； in a word； that the good
and the bad man alike seem to lose the power of free will； for the
one is morally unable to sin； the other physically incapacitated
for reformation。
And of the influence of climate and temperature in forming the
nature of man （a conception perhaps pressed too far in modern days
when the 'race theory' is supposed to be a sufficient explanation
of the Hindoo； and the latitude and longitude of a country the best
guide to its morals（6）） Aristotle is completely unaware。 I do not
allude to such smaller points as the oligarchical tendencies of a
horse…breeding country and the democratic influence of the
proximity of the sea （important though they are for the
consideration of Greek history）； but rather to those wider views in
the seventh book of his POLITICS； where he attributes the happy
union in the Greek character of intellectual attainments with the
spirit of progress to the temperate climate they enjoyed； and
points out how the extreme cold of the north dulls the mental
faculties of its inhabitants and renders them incapable of social
organisation or extended empire； while to the enervating heat of
eastern countries was due that want of spirit and bravery which
then； as now； was the characteristic of the population in that
quarter of the globe。
Thucydides has shown the causal connection between political
revolutions and the fertility of the soil； but goes a step farther
and points out the psychological influences on a people's character
exercised by the various extremes of climate … in both cases the
first appearance of a most valuable form of historical criticism。
To the development of Dialectic； as to God； intervals of time are
of no account。 From Plato and Aristotle we pass direct to
Polybius。
The progress of thought from the philosopher of the Academe to the
Arcadian historian may be best illustrated by a comparison of the
method by which each of the three writers； whom I have selected as
the highest expression of the rationalism of his respective age；
attained to his ideal state： for the latter concep