按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
must beware of regarding this conception as a mere reproduction of
that cyclic theory of events which sees in the world nothing but
the regular rotation of Strophe and Antistrophe； in the eternal
choir of life and death。
For； in his remarks on the excesses of the Corcyrean Revolution；
Thucydides distinctly rests his idea of the recurrence of history
on the psychological grounds of the general sameness of mankind。
'The sufferings；' he says； 'which revolution entailed upon the
cities were many and terrible； such as have occurred and always
will occurs as long as human nature remains the same； though in a
severer or milder form； and varying in their symptoms according to
the variety of the particular cases。
'In peace and prosperity states and individuals have better
sentiments； because they are not confronted with imperious
necessities； but war takes away the easy supply of men's wants； and
so proves a hard taskmaster； which brings most men's characters to
a level with their fortunes。'
CHAPTER IV
IT is evident that here Thucydides is ready to admit the variety of
manifestations which external causes bring about in their workings
on the uniform character of the nature of man。 Yet； after all is
said； these are perhaps but very general statements： the ordinary
effects of peace and war are dwelt on； but there is no real
analysis of the immediate causes and general laws of the phenomena
of life； nor does Thucydides seem to recognise the truth that if
humanity proceeds in circles； the circles are always widening。
Perhaps we may say that with him the philosophy of history is
partly in the metaphysical stage； and see； in the progress of this
idea from Herodotus to Polybius； the exemplification of the Comtian
Law of the three stages of thought； the theological； the
metaphysical； and the scientific： for truly out of the vagueness
of theological mysticism this conception which we call the
Philosophy of History was raised to a scientific principle；
according to which the past was explained and the future predicted
by reference to general laws。
Now； just as the earliest account of the nature of the progress of
humanity is to be found in Plato； so in him we find the first
explicit attempt to found a universal philosophy of history upon
wide rational grounds。 Having created an ideally perfect state；
the philosopher proceeds to give an elaborate theory of the complex
causes which produce revolutions； of the moral effects of various
forms of government and education； of the rise of the criminal
classes and their connection with pauperism； and； in a word； to
create history by the deductive method and to proceed from A PRIORI
psychological principles to discover the governing laws of the
apparent chaos of political life。
There have been many attempts since Plato to deduce from a single
philosophical principle all the phenomena which experience
subsequently verifies for us。 Fichte thought he could predict the
world…plan from the idea of universal time。 Hegel dreamed he had
found the key to the mysteries of life in the development of
freedom； and Krause in the categories of being。 But the one
scientific basis on which the true philosophy of history must rest
is the complete knowledge of the laws of human nature in all its
wants； its aspirations； its powers and its tendencies： and this
great truth； which Thucydides may be said in some measure to have
apprehended； was given to us first by Plato。
Now； it cannot be accurately said of this philosopher that either
his philosophy or his history is entirely and simply A PRIORI。 ON
EST DE SON SIECLE MEME QUAND ON Y PROTESTE； and so we find in him
continual references to the Spartan mode of life； the Pythagorean
system； the general characteristics of Greek tyrannies and Greek
democracies。 For while； in his account of the method of forming an
ideal state； he says that the political artist is indeed to fix his
gaze on the sun of abstract truth in the heavens of the pure
reason； but is sometimes to turn to the realisation of the ideals
on earth： yet； after all； the general character of the Platonic
method； which is what we are specially concerned with； is
essentially deductive and A PRIORI。 And he himself； in the
building up of his Nephelococcygia； certainly starts with a ＇Greek
text which cannot be reproduced＇； making a clean sweep of all
history and all experience； and it was essentially as an A PRIORI
theorist that he is criticised by Aristotle； as we shall see later。
To proceed to closer details regarding the actual scheme of the
laws of political revolutions as drawn out by Plato； we must first
note that the primary cause of the decay of the ideal state is the
general principle； common to the vegetable and animal worlds as
well as to the world of history； that all created things are fated
to decay … a principle which； though expressed in the terms of a
mere metaphysical abstraction； is yet perhaps in its essence
scientific。 For we too must hold that a continuous redistribution
of matter and motion is the inevitable result of the nominal
persistence of Force； and that perfect equilibrium is as impossible
in politics as it certainly is in physics。
The secondary causes which mar the perfection of the Platonic 'city
of the sun' are to be found in the intellectual decay of the race
consequent on injudicious marriages and in the Philistine elevation
of physical achievements over mental culture； while the
hierarchical succession of Timocracy and Oligarchy； Democracy and
Tyranny； is dwelt on at great length and its causes analysed in a
very dramatic and psychological manner； if not in that sanctioned
by the actual order of history。
And indeed it is apparent at first sight that the Platonic
succession of states represents rather the succession of ideas in
the philosophic mind than any historical succession of time。
Aristotle meets the whole simply by an appeal to facts。 If the
theory of the periodic decay of all created things； he urges； be
scientific； it must be universal； and so true of all the other
states as well as of the ideal。 Besides； a state usually changes
into its contrary and not to the form next to it； so the ideal
state would not change into Timocracy； while Oligarchy； more often
than Tyranny； succeeds Democracy。 Plato； besides； says nothing of
what a Tyranny would change to。 According to the cycle theory it
ought to pass into the ideal state again； but as a fact one Tyranny
is changed into another as at Sicyon； or into a Democracy as at
Syracuse； or into an Aristocracy as at Carthage。 The example of
Sicily； too； shows that an Oligarchy is often followed by a
Tyranny； as at Leontini and Gela。 Besides； it is absurd to
represent greed as the chief motive of decay； or to talk of avarice
as the root of Oligarchy； when in nearly all true oligarchies
money…making is forbidden by law。 And finally the Platonic theory
neglects the different kinds of democracies and of tyrannies。
Now nothing can be more important than this passage in Aristotle's
POLITICS （v。 12。）； which may he said to mark an era in the
evolution of historical criticism。 For there is nothing on which
Aristotle insists so strongly as that the generalisations from
facts ought to be added to the data of the A PRIORI method … a
principle which we know to be true not merely of deductive
speculative politics but of physics also： for are not the residual
phenomena of chemists a valuable source of improvement in theory？
His own method is essentially historical though by no means
empirical。 On the contrary； this far…seeing thinker； rightly
styled IL MAESTRO DI COLOR CHE SANNO； may be said to have
apprehended clearly that the true method is neither exclusively
empirical nor exclusively speculative； but rather a union of both
in the process called Analysis or the Interpretation of Facts；
which h