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savage who used to sell his wife' to the free independence of a
free state； and to the ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇；
which was the test of true citizenship。 The stages passed through
by humanity start with the family first as the ultimate unit。
The conglomeration of families forms a village ruled by that
patriarchal sway which is the oldest form of government in the
world； as is shown by the fact that all men count it to be the
constitution of heaven； and the villages are merged into the state；
and here the progression stops。
For Aristotle； like all Greek thinkers； found his ideal within the
walls of the ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇； yet perhaps
in his remark that a united Greece would rule the world we may
discern some anticipation of that 'federal union of free states
into one consolidated empire' which； more than the ＇Greek text
which cannot be reproduced＇； is to our eyes the ultimately perfect
polity。
How far Aristotle was justified in regarding the family as the
ultimate unit； with the materials afforded to him by Greek
literature； I have already noticed。 Besides； Aristotle； I may
remark； had he reflected on the meaning of that Athenian law which；
while prohibiting marriage with a uterine sister； permitted it with
a sister…german； or on the common tradition in Athens that before
the time of Cecrops children bore their mothers' names； or on some
of the Spartan regulations； could hardly have failed to see the
universality of kinsmanship through women in early days； and the
late appearance of monandry。 Yet； while he missed this point； in
common； it must be acknowledged； with many modern writers； such as
Sir Henry Maine； it is essentially as an explorer of inductive
instances that we recognise his improvement on Plato。 The treatise
＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇； did it remain to us in its
entirety； would have been one of the most valuable landmarks in the
progress of historical criticism； and the first scientific treatise
on the science of comparative politics。
A few fragments still remain to us； in one of which we find
Aristotle appealing to the authority of an ancient inscription on
the 'Disk of Iphitus；' one of the most celebrated Greek
antiquities； to corroborate his theory of the Lycurgean revival of
the Olympian festival； while his enormous research is evinced in
the elaborate explanation he gives of the historical origin of
proverbs such as ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇； of
religious songs like the ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇ of
the Botticean virgins； or the praises of love and war。
And； finally； it is to be observed how much wider than Plato's his
theory of the origin of society is。 They both rest on a
psychological basis； but Aristotle's recognition of the capacity
for progress and the tendency towards a higher life shows how much
deeper his knowledge of human nature was。
In imitation of these two philosophers； Polybius gives an account
of the origin of society in the opening to his philosophy of
history。 Somewhat in the spirit of Plato； he imagines that after
one of the cyclic deluges which sweep off mankind at stated periods
and annihilate all pre…existing civilisation； the few surviving
members of humanity coalesce for mutual protection； and； as in the
case with ordinary animals； the one most remarkable for physical
strength is elected king。 In a short time； owing to the workings
of sympathy and the desire of approbation； the moral qualities
begin to make their appearance； and intellectual instead of bodily
excellence becomes the qualification for sovereignty。
Other points； as the rise of law and the like； are dwelt on in a
somewhat modern spirit； and although Polybius seems not to have
employed the inductive method of research in this question； or
rather； I should say； of the hierarchical order of the rational
progress of ideas in life； he is not far removed from what the
laborious investigations of modern travellers have given us。
And； indeed； as regards the working of the speculative faculty in
the creation of history； it is in all respects marvellous how that
the most truthful accounts of the passage from barbarism to
civilisation in ancient literature come from the works of poets。
The elaborate researches of Mr。 Tylor and Sir John Lubbock have
done little more than verify the theories put forward in the
PROMETHEUS BOUND and the DE NATURA RERUM； yet neither AEschylus nor
Lucretias followed in the modern path； but rather attained to truth
by a certain almost mystic power of creative imagination； such as
we now seek to banish from science as a dangerous power； though to
it science seems to owe many of its most splendid generalities。 （5）
Leaving then the question of the origin of society as treated by
the ancients； I shall now turn to the other and the more important
question of how far they may he said to have attained to what we
call the philosophy of history。
Now at the outset we must note that； while the conceptions of law
and order have been universally received as the governing
principles of the phenomena of nature in the sphere of physical
science； yet their intrusion into the domain of history and the
life of man has always been met with a strong opposition； on the
ground of the incalculable nature of two great forces acting on
human action； a certain causeless spontaneity which men call free
will； and the extra…natural interference which they attribute as a
constant attribute to God。
Now； that there is a science of the apparently variable phenomena
of history is a conception which WE have perhaps only recently
begun to appreciate； yet； like all other great thoughts； it seems
to have come to the Greek mind spontaneously； through a certain
splendour of imagination； in the morning tide of their
civilisation； before inductive research had armed them with the
instruments of verification。 For I think it is possible to discern
in some of the mystic speculations of the early Greek thinkers that
desire to discover what is that 'invariable existence of which
there are variable states；' and to incorporate it in some one
formula of law which may serve to explain the different
manifestations of all organic bodies； MAN INCLUDED； which is the
germ of the philosophy of history； the germ indeed of an idea of
which it is not too much to say that on it any kind of historical
criticism； worthy of the name； must ultimately rest。
For the very first requisite for any scientific conception of
history is the doctrine of uniform sequence： in other words； that
certain events having happened； certain other events corresponding
to them will happen also； that the past is the key of the future。
Now at the birth of this great conception science； it is true；
presided； yet religion it was which at the outset clothed it in its
own garb； and familiarised men with it by appealing to their hearts
first and then to their intellects； knowing that at the beginning
of things it is through the moral nature； and not through the
intellectual； that great truths are spread。
So in Herodotus； who may be taken as a representative of the
orthodox tone of thought； the idea of the uniform sequence of cause
and effect appears under the theological aspect of Nemesis and
Providence； which is really the scientific conception of law； only
it is viewed from an ETHICAL standpoint。
Now in Thucydides the philosophy of history rests on the
probability； which the uniformity of human nature affords us； that
the future will in the course of human things resemble the past； if
not reproduce it。 He appears to contemplate a recurrence of the
phenomena of history as equally certain with a return of the
epidemic of the Great Plague。
Notwithstanding what German critics have written on the subject； we
must beware of regarding this conception as a mere reproduction of
that cyclic theory