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certainty； exempt from those periodically recurring famines so
abundant in the early history of Europe； and in Oriental
countries even now not unfrequent。 Besides this great increase in
the quantity of food； it has greatly improved in quality and
variety； while conveniences and luxuries； other than food； are no
longer limited to a small and opulent class； but descend； in
great abundance； through many widening strata in society。 The
collective resources of one of these communities； when it chooses
to put them forth for any unexpected purpose； its ability to
maintain fleets and armies； to execute public works； either
useful or ornamental； to perform national acts of beneficence
like the ransom of the West India slaves； to found colonies； to
have its people taught； to do anything in short which requires
expense； and to do it with no sacrifice of the necessaries or
even the substantial comforts of its inhabitants； are such as the
world never saw before。
But in all these particulars； characteristic of the modern
industrial communities； those communities differ widely from one
another。 Though abounding in wealth as compared with former ages；
they do so in very different degrees。 Even of the countries which
are justly accounted the richest； some have made a more complete
use of their productive resources； and have obtained； relatively
to their territorial extent； a much larger produce； than others；
nor do they differ only in amount of wealth； but also in the
rapidity of its increase。 The diversities in the distribution of
wealth are still greater than in the production。 There are great
differences in the condition of the poorest class in different
countries； and in the proportional numbers and opulence of the
classes which are above the poorest。 The very nature and
designation of the classes who originally share among them the
produce of the soil； vary not a little in different places。 In
some； the landowners are a class in themselves； almost entirely
separate from the classes engaged in industry。 in others； the
proprietor of the land is almost universally its cultivator；
owning the plough； and often himself holding it。 Where the
proprietor himself does not cultivate； there is sometimes；
between him and the labourer； an intermediate agency； that of the
farmer； who advances the subsistence of the labourers； supplies
the instruments of production； and receives； after paying a rent
to the landowner； all the produce： in other cases； the landlord；
his paid agents； and the labourers； are the only sharers。
Manufactures； again； are sometimes carried on by scattered
individuals； who own or hire the tools or machinery they require；
and employ little labour besides that of their own family； in
other cases； by large numbers working together in one building；
with expensive and complex machinery owned by rich manufacturers。
The same difference exists in the operations of trade。 The
wholesale operations indeed are everywhere carried on by large
capitals； where such exist； but the retail dealings； which
collectively occupy a very great amount of capital； are sometimes
conducted in small shops； chiefly by the personal exertions of
the dealers themselves； with their families； and perhaps an
apprentice or two； and sometimes in large establishments； of
which the funds are supplied by a wealthy individual or
association； and the agency is that of numerous salaried shopmen
or shopwomen。 Besides these differences in the economical
phenomena presented by different parts of what is usually called
the civilized world； all those earlier states which we previously
passed in review； have continued in some part or other of the
world； down to our own time。 Hunting communities still exist in
America； nomadic in Arabia and the steppes of Northern Asia；
Oriental society is in essentials what it has always been； the
great empire of Russia is even now； in many respects； the
scarcely modified image of feudal Europe。 Every one of the great
types of human society； down to that of the Esquimaux or
Patagonians； is still extant。
These remarkable differences in the state of different
portions of the human race； with regard to the production and
distribution of wealth； must； like all other phenomena； depend on
causes。 And it is not a sufficient explanation to ascribe them
exclusively to the degrees of knowledge possessed at different
times and places； of the laws of nature and the physical arts of
life。 Many other causes co…operate； and that very progress and
unequal distribution of physical knowledge are partly the
effects； as well as partly the causes； of the state of the
production and distribution of wealth。
In so far as the economical condition of nations turns upon
the state of physical knowledge； it is a subject for the physical
sciences； and the arts founded on them。 But in so far as the
causes are moral or psychological； dependent on institutions and
social relations； or on the principles of human nature； their
investigation belongs not to physical； but to moral and social
science； and is the object of what is called Political Economy。
The production of wealth； the extraction of the instruments
of human subsistence and enjoyment from the materials of the
globe； is evidently not an arbitrary thing。 It has its necessary
conditions。 Of these； some are physical； depending on the
properties of matter； and on the amount of knowledge of those
properties possessed at the particular place and time。 These
Political Economy does not investigate； but assumes； referring
for the grounds； to physical science or common experience。
Combining with these facts of outward nature other truths
relating to human nature； it attempts to trace the secondary or
derivative laws； by which the production of wealth is determined；
in which must lie the explanation of the diversities of riches
and poverty in the present and past； and the ground of whatever
increase in wealth is reserved for the future。
Unlike the laws of Production； those of Distribution are
partly of human institution： since the manner in which wealth is
distributed in any given society； depends on the statutes or
usages therein obtaining。 But though governments or nations have
the power of deciding what institutions shall exist； they cannot
arbitrarily determine how those institutions shall work。 The
conditions on which the power they possess over the distribution
of wealth is dependent； and the manner in which the distribution
is effected by the various modes of conduct which society may
think fit to adopt； are as much a subject for scientific enquiry
as any of the physical laws of nature。
The laws of Production and Distribution； and some of the
practical consequences deducible from them； are the subject of
the following treatise。