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prosperity； while the ascendant community obtained a surplus of
wealth； available for purposes of collective luxury or
magnificence。 From such a surplus the Parthenon and the Propylaea
were built； the sculptures of Pheidias paid for； and the
festivals celebrated； for which AEschylus； Sophocles； Euripides；
and Aristophanes composed their dramas。 But this state of
political relations； most useful； while it lasted； to the
progress and ultimate interest of mankind； had not the elements
of durability。 A small conquering community which does not
incorporate its conquests； always ends by being conquered。
Universal dominion； therefore； at last rested with the people who
practised this art with the Romans； who； whatever were their
other devices； always either began or ended by taking a great
part of the land to enrich their own leading citizens； and by
adopting into the governing body the principal possessors of the
remainder。 It is unnecessary to dwell on the melancholy
economomical history of the Roman empire。 When inequality of
wealth once commences； in a community not constantly engaged in
repairing by industry the injuries of fortune； its advances are
gigantic； the great masses of wealth swallow up the smaller。 The
Roman empire ultimately became covered with the vast landed
possessions of a comparatively few families； for whose luxury；
and still more for whose ostentation； the most costly products
were raised； soil were slaves； or small tenants in a while the
condition。 cultivators of the soil were slaves； or small tenants
in nearly servile condition。 From this time the weaLth of the
empire progressively declined。 In the beginning； the public
revenues； and the resources of rich individuals； sufficed at
least to cover Italy with splendid edifices； public and private；
but at length so dwindled under the enervating influences of
misgovernment； that what remained was not even sufficient to keep
those edifices from decay。 The strength and riches of the
civilized world became inadequate to make head against the nomad
population which skirted its northern frontier； they overran the
empire； and a different order of things succeeded。
In the new frame in which European society was now cast； the
population of each country may be considered as composed； in
unequal proportions； of two distinct nations or races； the
conquerors and the conquered： the first the proprietors of the
land； the latter the tillers of it。 These tillers were allowed to
occupy the land on conditions which； being the product of force；
were always onerous； but seldom to the extent of absolute
slavery。 Already； in the later times of the Roman empire； predial
slavery had extensively transformed itself into a kind of
serfdom： the coloni of the Romans were rather villeins than
actual slaves； and the incapacity and distaste of the barbarian
conquerors for personally superintending industrial occupations；
left no alternative but to allow to the cultivators； as an
incentive to exertion； some real interest in the soil。 If； for
example； they were compelled to labour； three days in the week；
for their superior； the produce of the remaining days was their
own。 If they were required to supply the provisions of various
sorts； ordinarily needed for the consumption of the castle； and
were often subject to requisitions in excess； yet after supplying
these demands they were suffered to dispose at their will of
whatever additional produce they could raise。 Under this system
during the Middle Ages it was not impossible； no more than in
modern Russia （where； up to the recent measure of emancipation；
the same system still essentially prevailed）； for serfs to
acquire property； and in fact； their accumulations are the
primitive source of the wealth of modern Europe。
In that age of violence and disorder； the first use made by a
serf of any small provision which he had been able to accumulate；
was to buy his freedom and withdraw himself to some town or
fortified village； which had remained undestroyed from the time
of the Roman dominion； or； without buying his freedom； to abscond
thither。 In that place of refuge； surrounded by others of his own
class。 he attempted to live； secured in some measure from the
outrages and exactions of the warrior caste； by his own prowess
and that of his fellows。 These emancipated serfs mostly became
artificers； and lived by exchanging the produce of their industry
for the surplus food and material which the soil yielded to its
feudal proprietors。 This gave rise to a sort of European
counterpart of the economical condition of Asiatic countries；
except that； in lieu of a single monarch and a fluctuating body
of favourites and employ閟； there was a numerous and in a
considerable degree fixed class of great landholders； exhibiting
far less splendour； because individually disposing of a much
smaller surplus produce； and for a long time expending the chief
part of it in maintaining the body of retainers whom the warlike
habits of society； and the little protection afforded by
government； rendered indispensable to their safety。 The greater
stability； the fixity of personal position； which this state of
society afforded； in comparison with the Asiatic polity to which
it economically corresponded； was one main reason why it was also
found more favourable to improvement。 From this time the
economical advancement of society has not been further
interrupted。 Security of person and property grew slowly； but
steadily。 the arts of life made constant progress； plunder ceased
to be the principal source of accumulation； and feudal Europe
ripened into commercial and manufacturing Europe。 In the latter
part of the Middle Ages； the towns of Italy and Flanders； the
free cities of Germany； and some towns of France and England；
contained a large and energetic population of artisans； and many
rich burghers； whose wealth had been acquired by manufacturing
industry； or by trading in the produce of such industry。 The
Commons of England； the Tiers…Etat of France； the bourgeoisie of
the Continent generally； are the descendants of this class。 As
these were a saving class； while the posterity of the feudal
aristocracy were a squandering class； the former by degrees
substituted themselves for the latter as the owners of a great
proportion of the land。 This natural tendency was in some cases
retarded by laws contrived for the purpose of detaining the land
in the families of its existing possessors； in other cases
accelerated by political revolutions。 Gradually； though more
slowly； the immediate cultivators of the soil； in all the more
civilized countries； ceased to be in a servile or semi…servile
state： though the legal position； as well as the economical
condition attained by them； vary extremely in the different
nations of Europe； and in the great communities which have been
founded beyond the Atlantic by the descendants of Europeans。
The world now contains several extensive regions； provided
with the various ingredients of wealth in a degree of abundance
of which former ages had not even the idea。 Without compulsory
labour； an enormous mass of food is annuaLly extracted from the
soil； and maintains； besides the actual producers； an equal；
sometimes a greater number of labourers； occupied in producing
conveniences and luxuries of innumerable kinds； or in
transporting them from place to place； also a multitude of
persons employed in directing and superintending these various
labours； and over and above all these； a class more numerous than
in the most luxurious ancient societies； of persons whose
occupations are of a kind not directly productive； and of persons
who have no occupation at all。 The food thus raised supports a
far larger population than had ever existed （at least in the same
regions） on an equal space of ground； and supports them with
certainty； exempt from those periodically recurring famines so
abundant i