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way in which the proposed transaction will proceed； and that it will proceed to our wish。
Let us put the case； that I am passing along the highway； destitute and pennyless； and without foresight of any means by which I am to procure the next meal that my nature requires。
The vagrant； who revolves in his mind the thought of extorting from another the supply of which he is urgently in need； surveys the person upon whom he meditates this violence with a scrutinising eye。 He considers； Will this man submit to my summons without resistance； or in what manner will he repel my trespass？ He watches his eye； he measures his limbs； his strength； and his agility。 Though they have met in the deserts of Africa； where there is no law to punish the violator； he knows that he exposes himself to a fearful hazard； and he enters upon his purpose with desperate resolve。 All this and more must occur to the man of violence； within the pale of a civilised community。
Begging is the mildest form in which a man can obtain from the stranger he meets； the means of supplying his urgent necessities。
But； even here； the beggar knows that he exposes himself not only to refusal； but to the harsh and opprobrious terms in which that refusal may be conveyed。 In this city there are laws against begging； and the man that asks alms of me； is an offender against the state。 In country…towns it is usual to remark a notice upon entering； to say； Whoever shall be found begging in this place； shall be set in the stocks。
There are modes however in which I may accost a stranger； with small apprehension that I shall be made to repent of it。 I may enquire of him my way to the place towards which my business or my pleasure invites me。 Ennius of old has observed； that lumen de lumine； to light my candle at my neighbour's lamp； is one of the privileges that the practices of civil society concede。
But it is not merely from forecast and prudence that we refrain from interrupting the stranger in his way。 We have all of us a certain degree of kindness for a being of our own species。 A multitude of men feel this kindness for every thing that has animal life。 We would not willingly molest the stranger who has done us no injury。 On the contrary we would all of us to a certain extent assist him； under any unforeseen casualty and tribulation。 A part therefore of the innocence that characterises our species is to be attributed to philanthropy。
Childhood is diffident。 Children for the most part are averse to the addressing themselves to strangers； unless in cases where； from the mere want of anticipation and reflection； they proceed as if they were wholly without the faculty of making calculations and deducing conclusions。 The child neither knows himself nor the stranger he meets in his path。 He has not measured either the one or the other。 He does not know what the stranger may be able； or may likely be prompted to do to him； nor what are his own means of defence or escape。 He takes refuge therefore in a wary； sometimes an obstinate silence。 It is for this reason that a boy at school often appears duller and more inept； than would be the amount of a fair proportion to what he is found to be when grown up to a man。
As we improve in judgment and strength； we know better ourselves and others； and in a majority of instances take our due place in the ranks of society。 We acquire a modest and cautious firmness； yield what belongs to another； and assert what is due to ourselves。 To the last however； we for the most part retain the inoffensiveness described in the beginning of this Essay。
How comes it then that our nature labours under so bitter an aspersion？ We have been described as cunning； malicious and treacherous。 Other animals herd together for mutual convenience； and their intercourse with their species is for the most part a reciprocation of social feeling and kindness。 But community among men； we are told； is that condition of human existence； which brings out all our evil qualities to the face of day。 We lie in wait for； and circumvent each other by multiplied artifices。 We cannot depend upon each other for the truth of what is stated to us； and promises and the most solemn engagements often seem as if they were made only to mislead。 We are violent and deadly in our animosities； easily worked up to ferocity； and satisfied with scarcely any thing short of mutilation and blood。 We are revengeful： we lay up an injury； real or imaginary； in the store…house of an undecaying memory； waiting only till we can repay the evil we have sustained tenfold； at a time when our adversary shall be lulled in unsuspecting security。 We are rapacious； with no symptom that the appetite for gain within us will ever be appeased； and we practise a thousand deceits； that it may be the sooner； and to the greater degree glutted。 The ambition of man is unbounded； and he hesitates at no means in the course it prompts him to pursue。 In short； man is to man ever the most fearful and dangerous foe： and it is in this view of his nature that the king of Brobdingnag says to Gulliver； 〃I cannot but conclude the bulk of your race to be the most pernicious generation of little； odious vermin； that were ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth。〃 The comprehensive faculties of man therefore； and the refinements and subtlety of his intellect； serve only to render him the more formidable companion； and to hold us up as a species to merited condemnation。
It is obvious however that the picture thus drawn is greatly overcharged； that it describes a very small part of our race； and that even as to them it sets before us a few features only； and a partial representation
Historythe successive scenes of the drama in which individuals play their partis a labyrinth； of which no man has as yet exactly seized the clue。
It has long since been observed； that the history of the four great monarchies； of tyrannies and free states； of chivalry and clanship； of Mahometanism and the Christian church； of the balance of Europe and the revolution of empires； is little else than a tissue of crimes； exhibiting nations as if they were so many herds of ferocious animals； whose genuine occupation was to tear each other to pieces； and to deform their mother…earth with mangled carcases and seas of blood。
But it is not just that we should establish our opinion of human nature purely from the records of history。 Man is alternately devoted to tranquillity and to violence。 But the latter only affords the proper materials of narration。 When he is wrought upon by some powerful impulse； our curiosity is most roused to observe him。 We remark his emotions； his energies； his tempest。 It is then that he becomes the person of a drama。 And； where this disquietude is not the affair of a single individual； but of several persons together； of nations； it is there that history finds her harvest。 She goes into the field with all the implements of her industry； and fills her storehouses and magazines with the abundance of her crop。 But times of tranquillity and peace furnish her with no materials。 They are dismissed in a few slight sentences； and leave no memory behind。
Let us divide this spacious earth into equal compartments； and see in which violence； and in which tranquillity prevails。 Let us look through the various ranks and occupations of human society； and endeavour to arrive at a conclusion of a similar sort。 The soldier by occupation； and the officer who commands him； would seem； when they are employed in their express functions； to be men of strife。 Kings and ministers of state have in a multitude of instances fallen under this description。 Conquerors； the firebrands of the earth； have sufficiently displayed their noxious propensities。
But these are but a small part of the tenantry of the many…peopled globe。 Man lives by the sweat of his brow。 The teeming earth is given him； that by his labour he may raise from it the means of his subsistence。 Agriculture is； at least among civilised nations； the first； and certainly the most indispensible of professions。 The profession itself is the emblem of peace。 All its occupations； from seed…time to harvest； are tranquil；