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There were Philistines among the Greeks also who saw in the ＇Greek
text which cannot be reproduced＇ a mere metaphor for atmospheric
power。
Now while this tendency to look for metaphors and hidden meanings
must be ranked as one of the germs of historical criticism； yet it
was essentially unscientific。 Its inherent weakness is clearly
pointed out by Plato； who showed that while this theory will no
doubt explain many of the current legends； yet； if it is to be
appealed to at all； it must be as a universal principle； a position
he is by no means prepared to admit。
Like many other great principles it suffered from its disciples；
and furnished its own refutation when the web of Penelope was
analysed into a metaphor of the rules of formal logic； the warp
representing the premises； and the woof the conclusion。
Rejecting； then； the allegorical interpretation of the sacred
writings as an essentially dangerous method； proving either too
much or too little； Plato himself returns to the earlier mode of
attack； and re…writes history with a didactic purpose； laying down
certain ethical canons of historical criticism。 God is good； God
is just； God is true； God is without the common passions of men。
These are the tests to which we are to bring the stories of the
Greek religion。
'God predestines no men to ruin； nor sends destruction on innocent
cities； He never walks the earth in strange disguise； nor has to
mourn for the death of any well…beloved son。 Away with the tears
for Sarpedon； the lying dream sent to Agamemnon； and the story of
the broken covenant！' （Plato； REPUBLIC； Book ii。 380； iii。 388；
391。）
Similar ethical canons are applied to the accounts of the heroes of
the days of old； and by the same A PRIORI principles Achilles is
rescued from the charges of avarice and insolence in a passage
which may be recited as the earliest instance of that 'whitewashing
of great men；' as it has been called； which is so popular in our
own day； when Catiline and Clodius are represented as honest and
far…seeing politicians； when EINE EDLE UND GUTE NATUR is claimed
for Tiberius； and Nero is rescued from his heritage of infamy as an
accomplished DILETTANTE whose moral aberrations are more than
excused by his exquisite artistic sense and charming tenor voice。
But besides the allegorising principle of interpretation； and the
ethical reconstruction of history； there was a third theory； which
may be called the semi…historical； and which goes by the name of
Euhemeros； though he was by no means the first to propound it。
Appealing to a fictitious monument which he declared that he had
discovered in the island of Panchaia； and which purported to be a
column erected by Zeus； and detailing the incidents of his reign on
earth； this shallow thinker attempted to show that the gods and
heroes of ancient Greece were 'mere ordinary mortals； whose
achievements had been a good deal exaggerated and misrepresented；'
and that the proper canon of historical criticism as regards the
treatment of myths was to rationalise the incredible； and to
present the plausible residuum as actual truth。
To him and his school； the centaurs； for instance； those mythical
sons of the storm； strange links between the lives of men and
animals； were merely some youths from the village of Nephele in
Thessaly； distinguished for their sporting tastes； the 'living
harvest of panoplied knights；' which sprang so mystically from the
dragon's teeth； a body of mercenary troops supported by the profits
on a successful speculation in ivory； and Actaeon； an ordinary
master of hounds； who； living before the days of subscription； was
eaten out of house and home by the expenses of his kennel。
Now； that under the glamour of myth and legend some substratum of
historical fact may lie； is a proposition rendered extremely
probable by the modern investigations into the workings of the
mythopoeic spirit in post…Christian times。 Charlemagne and Roland；
St。 Francis and William Tell； are none the less real personages
because their histories are filled with much that is fictitious and
incredible； but in all cases what is essentially necessary is some
external corroboration； such as is afforded by the mention of
Roland and Roncesvalles in the chronicles of England； or （in the
sphere of Greek legend） by the excavations of Hissarlik。 But to
rob a mythical narrative of its kernel of supernatural elements；
and to present the dry husk thus obtained as historical fact； is；
as has been well said； to mistake entirely the true method of
investigation and to identify plausibility with truth。
And as regards the critical point urged by Palaiphatos； Strabo； and
Polybius； that pure invention on Homer's part is inconceivable； we
may without scruple allow it； for myths； like constitutions； grow
gradually； and are not formed in a day。 But between a poet's
deliberate creation and historical accuracy there is a wide field
of the mythopoeic faculty。
This Euhemeristic theory was welcomed as an essentially
philosophical and critical method by the unscientific Romans； to
whom it was introduced by the poet Ennius； that pioneer of
cosmopolitan Hellenicism； and it continued to characterise the tone
of ancient thought on the question of the treatment of mythology
till the rise of Christianity； when it was turned by such writers
as Augustine and Minucius Felix into a formidable weapon of attack
on Paganism。 It was then abandoned by all those who still bent the
knee to Athena or to Zeus； and a general return； aided by the
philosophic mystics of Alexandria； to the allegorising principle of
interpretation took place； as the only means of saving the deities
of Olympus from the Titan assaults of the new Galilean God。 In
what vain defence； the statue of Mary set in the heart of the
Pantheon can best tell us。
Religions； however； may be absorbed； but they never are disproved；
and the stories of the Greek mythology； spiritualised by the
purifying influence of Christianity； reappear in many of the
southern parts of Europe in our own day。 The old fable that the
Greek gods took service with the new religion under assumed names
has more truth in it than the many care to discover。
Having now traced the progress of historical criticism in the
special treatment of myth and legend； I shall proceed to
investigate the form in which the same spirit manifested itself as
regards what one may term secular history and secular historians。
The field traversed will be found to be in some respects the same；
but the mental attitude； the spirit； the motive of investigation
are all changed。
There were heroes before the son of Atreus and historians before
Herodotus； yet the latter is rightly hailed as the father of
history； for in him we discover not merely the empirical connection
of cause and effect； but that constant reference to Laws； which is
the characteristic of the historian proper。
For all history must be essentially universal； not in the sense of
comprising all the synchronous events of the past time； but through
the universality of the principles employed。 And the great
conceptions which unify the work of Herodotus are such as even
modern thought has not yet rejected。 The immediate government of
the world by God； the nemesis and punishment which sin and pride
invariably bring with them； the revealing of God's purpose to His
people by signs and omens； by miracles and by prophecy； these are
to Herodotus the laws which govern the phenomena of history。 He is
essentially the type of supernatural historian； his eyes are ever
strained to discern the Spirit of God moving over the face of the
waters of life； he is more concerned with final than with efficient
causes。
Yet we can discern in him the rise of that HISTORIC SENSE which is
the rational antecedent of the science of historical criticism； the
＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇