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Lecture VIII
The Growth and Diffusion of Primitive Ideas
Mr Tylor has justly observed that the true lesson of the new
science of Comparative Mythology is the barrenness in primitive
times of the faculty which we most associate with mental
fertility； the Imagination。 Comparative Jurisprudence； as might
be expected from the natural stability of law and custom； yet
more strongly suggests the same inference； and points to the
fewness of ideas and the slowness of additions to the mental
stock as among the most general characteristics of mankind in its
infancy。
The fact that the generation of new ideas does not proceed in
all states of society as rapidly as in that to which we belong；
is only not familiar to us through our inveterate habit of
confining our observation of human nature to a small portion of
its phenomena。 When we undertake to examine it； we are very apt
to look exclusively at a part of Western Europe and perhaps of
the American Continent。 We constantly leave aside India； China；
and the whole Mahometan East。 This limitation of our field of
vision is perfectly justifiable when we are occupied with the
investigation of the laws of Progress。 Progress is； in fact； the
same thing as the continued production of new ideas； and we can
only discover the law of this production by examining sequences
of ideas where they are frequent and of considerable length。 But
the primitive condition of the progressive societies is best
ascertained from the observable condition of those which are
non…progressive； and thus we leave a serious gap in our knowledge
when we put aside the mental state of the millions upon millions
of men who fill what we vaguely call the East as a phenomenon of
little interest and of no instructiveness。 The fact is not
unknown to most of us that； among these multitudes； Literature；
Religion； and Art or what corresponds to them move always
within a distinctly drawn circle of unchanging notions； but the
fact that this condition of thought is rather the infancy of the
human mind prolonged than a different maturity from that most
familiar to us； is very seldom brought home to us with a
clearness rendering it fruitful of instruction。
I do not； indeed； deny that the difference between the East
and the West； in respect of the different speed at which new
ideas are produced； is only a difference of degree。 There were
new ideas produced in India even during the disastrous period
just before the English entered it； and in the earlier ages this
production must have been rapid。 There must have been a series of
ages during which the progress of China was very steadily
maintained； and doubtless our assumption of the absolute
immobility of the Chinese and other societies is in part the
expression of our ignorance。 Conversely； I question whether new
ideas come into being in the West as rapidly as modern literature
and conversation sometimes suggest。 It cannot； indeed； be doubted
that causes； unknown to the ancient world； lead among us to the
multiplication of ideas。 Among them are the never ceasing
discovery of new facts of nature； inventions changing the
circumstances and material conditions of life； and new rules of
social conduct； the chief of this last class； and certainly the
most powerful in the domain of law proper； I take to be the
famous maxim that all institutions should be adapted to produce
the greatest happiness of the greatest number。 Nevertheless；
there are not a few signs that even conscious efforts to increase
the number of ideas have a very limited success。 Look at Poetry
and Fiction。 From time to time one mind endowed with the
assemblage of qualities called genius makes a great and sudden
addition to the combinations of thought； word； and sound which it
is the province of those arts to produce； yet as suddenly； after
one or a few such efforts； the productive activity of both
branches of invention ceases； and they settle down into
imitativeness for perhaps a century at a time。 An humbler example
may be sought in rules of social habit。 We speak of the caprices
of Fashion； yet； on examining them historically； we find them
singularly limited； so much so； that we are sometimes tempted to
regard Fashion as passing through cycles of form ever repeating
themselves。 There are； in fact； more natural limitations on the
fertility of intellect than we always admit to ourselves； and
these； reflected in bodies of men； translate themselves into that
weariness of novelty which seems at intervals to overtake whole
Western societies； including minds of every degree of information
and cultivation。
My present object is to point out some of the results of
mental sterility at a time when society is in the stage which we
have been considering。 Then； the relations between man and man
were summed up in kinship。 The fundamental assumption was that
all men； not united with you by blood； were your enemies or your
slaves。 Gradually the assumption became untrue in fact； and men；
who were not blood relatives； became related to one another on
terms of peace and mutual tolerance or mutual advantage Yet no
new ideas came into being exactly harmonising with the new
relation； nor was any new phraseology invented to express it。 The
new member of each group was spoken of as akin to it； was treated
as akin to it； was thought of as akin to it。 So little were ideas
changed that； as we shall see； the very affections and emotions
which the natural bond evoked were called forth in extraordinary
strength by the artificial tie。 The clear apprehension of these
facts throws light on several historical problems； and among them
on some of Irish history。 Yet they ought not greatly to surprise
us； since； in a modified form； they make part of our everyday
experience。 Almost everybody can observe that； when new
circumstances arise； we use our old ideas to bring them home to
us； it is only afterwards； and sometimes long afterwards； that
our ideas are found to have changed。 An English Court of Justice
is in great part an engine for working out this process。 New
combinations of circumstance are constantly arising； but in the
first instance they are exclusively interpreted according to old
legal ideas。 A little later lawyers admit that the old ideas are
not quite what they were before the new circumstances arose。
The slow generation of ideas in ancient times may first be
adduced as necessary to the explanation of that great family of
Fictions which meet us on the threshold of history and historical
jurisprudence。 Specimens of these fictions may be collected on
all sides from bodies of archaic custom or rudimentary systems of
law； but those most to our present purpose are fictitious
assumptions of blood…relationship。 Elsewhere I have pointed out
the strange conflict between belief or theory and what seems to
us notorious fact； which is observable in early Roman and
Hellenic society。 'It may be affirmed of early commonwealths that
their citizens considered all the groups in which they claimed
membership to be founded on common lineage。 What was obviously
true of the Family was believed to be true first of the House；
next of the Tribe； lastly of the State。 And yet we find that；
along with this belief； each community preserved records or
traditions which distinctly showed that the fundamental
assumption was false。 Whether we look to the Greek States； or to
Rome； or to the Teutonic aristocracies in Ditmarsh which
furnished Niebuhr with so many valuable illustrations； or to the
Celtic clan associations； or to that strange social organisation
of the Sclavonic Russians and Poles which has only lately
attracted notice； everywhe