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feels an interest； and after maintaining as many soldiers as he
thinks needful for his security or his state； has a disposable
residue； which he is glad to exchange for articles of luxury
suitable to his disposition： as have also the class of persons
who have been enriched by his favour； or by handling the public
revenues。 A demand thus arises for elaborate and costly
manufactured articles； adapted to a narrow but a wealthy market。
This demand is often supplied almost exclusively by the merchants
of more advanced communities； but often also raises up in the
country itself a class of artificers； by whom certain fabrics are
carried to as high excellence as can be given by patience；
quickness of perception and observation； and manual dexterity；
without any considerable knowledge of the properties of objects：
such as some of the cotton fabrics of India。 These artificers are
fed by the surplus food which has been taken by the government
and its agents as their share of the produce。 So literally is
this the case； that in some countries the workman； instead of
taking his work home； and being paid for it after it is finished；
proceeds with his tools to his customer's house； and is there
subsisted until the work is complete。 The insecurity； however； of
all possessions in this state of society； induces even the
richest purchasers to give a preference to such articles as；
being of an imperishable nature； and containing great value in
small bulk； are adapted for being concealed or carried off。 Gold
and jewels； therefore； constitute a large proportion of the
wealth of these nations； and many a rich Asiatic carries nearly
his whole fortune on his person； or on those of the women of his
harem。 No one； except the monarch； thinks of investing his wealth
in a manner not susceptible of removal。 He； indeed； if he feels
safe on his throne； and reasonably secure of transmitting it to
his descendants； sometimes indulges a taste for durable edifices；
and produces the Pyramids； or the Taj Mehal and the Mausoleum at
Sekundra。 The rude manufactures destined for the wants of the
cultivators are worked up by village artisans； who are
remunerated by land given to them rent…free to cultivate； or by
fees paid to them in kind from such share of the crop as is left
to the villagers by the government。 This state of society；
however； is not destitute of a mercantile class； composed of two
divisions； grain dealers and money dealers。 The grain dealers do
not usually buy grain from the producers； but from the agents of
government； who； receiving the revenue in kind； are glad to
devolve upon others the business of conveying it to the places
where the prince； his chief civil and military officers； the bulk
of his troops； and the artisans who supply the wants of these
various persons； are assembled。 The money dealers lend to the
unfortunate cultivators； when ruined by bad seasons or fiscal
exactions； the means of supporting life and continuing their
cultivation； and are repaid with enormous interest at the next
harvest； or； on a larger scale； they lend to the government； or
to those to whom it has granted a portion of the revenue； and are
indemnified by assignments on the revenue collectors； or by
having certain districts put into their possession； that they may
pay themselves from the revenues； to enable them to do which； a
great portion of the powers of government are usually made over
simultaneously； to be exercised by them until either the
districts are redeemed； or their receipts have liquidated the
debt。 Thus； the commercial operations of both these classes of
dealers take pLace principally upon that part of the produce of
the country which forms the revenue of the government。 From that
revenue their capital is periodically replaced with a profit； and
that is also the source from which their original funds have
almost always been derived。 Such； in its general features； is the
economical condition of most of the countries of Asia； as it has
been from beyond the commencement of authentic history； and is
still； wherever not disturbed by foreign influences。
In the agricultural communities of ancient Europe whose early
condition is best known to us； the course of things was
different。 These； at their origin； were mostly small
town…communities； at the first plantation of which； in an
unoccupied country； or in one from which the former inhabitants
had been expelled； the land which was taken possession of was
regularly divided； in equal or in graduated allotments； among the
families composing the community。 In some cases； instead of a
town there was a confederation of towns； occupied by people of
the same reputed race； and who were supposed to have settled in
the country about the same time。 Each family produced its own
food and the materials of its clothing； which were worked up
within itself； usually by the women of the family； into the
coarse fabrics with which the age was contented。 Taxes there were
none； as there were either no paid officers of government； or if
there were； their payment had been provided for by a reserved
portion of land； cultivated by slaves on account of the state；
and the army consisted of the body of citizens。 The whole produce
of the soil； therefore； belonged； without deduction； to the
family which cultivated it。 So long as the process of events
permitted this disposition of property to last； the state of
society was； for the majority of the free cultivators； probably
not an undesirable one； and under it； in some cases； the advance
of mankind in intellectual culture was extraordinarily rapid and
brilliant。 This more especially happened where； along with
advantageous circumstances of race and climate； and no doubt with
many favourable accidents of which all trace is now lost； was
combined the advantage of a position on the shores of a great
inland sea； the other coasts of which were already occupied by
settled communities。 The knowledge which in such a position was
acquired of foreign productions； and the easy access of foreign
ideas and inventions； made the chain of routine； usually so
strong in a rude people； hang loosely on these communities。 To
speak only of their industrial development； they early acquired
variety of wants and desires； which stimulated them to extract
from their own soil the utmost which they knew how to make it
yield； and when their soil was sterile； or after they had reached
the limit of its capacity； they often became traders； and bought
up the productions of foreign countries； to sell them in other
countries with a profit。
The duration； however； of this state of things was from the
first precarious。 These little communities lived in a state of
almost perpetual war。 For this there were many causes。 In the
ruder and purely agricultural communities a frequent cause was
the mere pressure of their increasing population upon their
limited land； aggravated as that pressure so often was by
deficient harvests； in the rude state of their agriculture； and
depending as they did for food upon a very small extent of
country。 On these occasions； the community often emigrated en
masse； or sent forth a swarm of its youth； to seek； sword in
hand； for some less warlike people； who could be expelled from
their land； or detained to cultivate it as slaves for the benefit
of their despoilers。 What the less advanced tribes did from
necessity； the more prosperous did from ambition and the military
spirit： and after a time the whole of these city…communities were
either conquerors or conquered。 In some cases； the conquering
state contented itself with imposing a tribute on the vanquished：
who being； in consideration of that burden； freed from the
expense and trouble of their own military and naval protection；
might enjoy under it a considerable share of economical
prosperity； while the ascendant community obtained a surplus of
wealth； available for purposes of collective