按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
point a dea hommes purement speciaux； que l'on devra cette
transformation。〃E。 M。 BATAILLE； Tr aite des Machines a Vapeur。
Tools have played a highly important part in the history of
civilization。 Without tools and the ability to use them； man were
indeed but a 〃poor； bare； forked animal；〃worse clothed than the
birds； worse housed than the beaver； worse fed than the jackal。 〃Weak
in himself；〃 says Carlyle； 〃and of small stature； he stands on a
basis； at most for the flattest…soled； of some half square foot；
insecurely enough； has to straddle out his legs； Jest the very wind
supplant him。 Feeblest of bipeds！ Three quintals are a crushing load
for him； the steer of the meadow tosses him aloft like a waste rag。
Nevertheless he can use tools； can devise tools： with these the
granite mountain melts into light dust before him； he kneads glowing
iron as if it were soft paste； seas are his smooth highway； winds and
fire his unvarying steeds。 Nowhere do you find him without tools：
without tools he is nothing； with tools he is all。〃 His very first
contrivances to support life were tools of the simplest and rudest
construction； and his latest achievements in the substitution of
machinery for the relief of the human hand and intellect are founded
on the use of tools of a still higher order。 Hence it is not without
good reason that man has by some philosophers been defined as A
TOOL…MAKING ANIMAL。
Tools； like everything else； had small beginnings。 With the primitive
stone…hammer and chisel very little could be done。 The felling of a
tree would occupy a workman a month； unless helped by the destructive
action of fire。 Dwellings could not be built； the soil could not be
tilled； clothes could not be fashioned and made； and the hewing out
of a boat was so tedious a process that the wood must have been far
gone in decay before it could be launched。 It was a great step in
advance to discover the art of working in metals； more especially in
steel； one of the few metals capable of taking a sharp edge and
keeping it。 From the date of this discovery； working in wood and
stone would be found comparatively easy； and the results must
speedily have been felt not only in the improvement of man's daily
food； but in his domestic and social condition。 Clothing could then
be made； the primitive forest could be cleared and tillage carried
on； abundant fuel could be obtained； dwellings erected； ships built；
temples reared； every improvement in tools marking a new step in the
development of the human intellect； and a further stage in the
progress of human civilization。
The earliest tools were of the simplest possible character；
consisting principally of modifications of the wedge； such as the
knife； the shears （formed of two knives working on a joint）； the
chisel； and the axe。 These； with the primitive hammer； formed the
principal stock…in…trade of the early mechanics； who were
handicraftsmen in the literal sense of the word。 But the work which
the early craftsmen in wood； stone； brass； and iron； contrived to
execute； sufficed to show how much expertness in the handling of
tools will serve to compensate for their mechanical imperfections。
Workmen then sought rather to aid muscular strength than to supersede
it； and mainly to facilitate the efforts of manual skill。 Another
tool became added to those mentioned above； which proved an
additional source of power to the workman。 We mean the Saw； which was
considered of so much importance that its inventor was honoured with
a place among the gods in the mythology of the Greeks。 This invention
is said to have been suggested by the arrangement of the teeth in the
jaw of a serpent； used by Talus the nephew of Daedalus in dividing a
piece of wood。 From the representations of ancient tools found in the
paintings at Herculaneum it appears that the frame…saw used by the
ancients very nearly resembled that still in use； and we are informed
that the tools employed in the carpenters' shops at Nazareth at this
day are in most respects the same as those represented in the buried
Roman city。 Another very ancient tool referred to in the Bible and in
Homer was the File； which was used to sharpen weapons and implements。
Thus the Hebrews 〃had a file for the mattocks； and for the coulters；
and for the forks； and for the axes； and to sharpen the goads。〃*
＇footnote。。。
1 Samuel； ch。 xiii。 v。 21。
。。。＇
When to these we add the adze； plane…irons； the anger； and the
chisel； we sum up the tools principally relied on by the early
mechanics for working in wood and iron。
Such continued to be the chief tools in use down almost to our own
day。 The smith was at first the principal tool…maker； but special
branches of trade were gradually established； devoted to tool…making。
So long； however； as the workman relied mainly on his dexterity of
hand； the amount of production was comparatively limited； for the
number of skilled workmen was but small。 The articles turned out by
them； being the product of tedious manual labour； were too dear to
come into common use； and were made almost exclusively for the richer
classes of the community。 It was not until machinery had been
invented and become generally adopted that many of the ordinary
articles of necessity and of comfort were produced in sufficient
abundance and at such prices as enabled them to enter into the
consumption of the great body of the people。
But every improver of tools had a long and difficult battle to fight；
for any improvement in their effective power was sure to touch the
interests of some established craft。 Especially was this the case
with machines； which are but tools of a more complete though
complicated kind than those above described。
Take； for instance； the case of the Saw。 The tedious drudgery of
dividing timber by the old fashioned hand…saw is well known。 To avoid
it； some ingenious person suggested that a number of saws should be
fixed to a frame in a mill； so contrived as to work with a
reciprocating motion； upwards and downwards； or backwards and
forwards； and that this frame so mounted should be yoked to the mill
wheel； and the saws driven by the power of wind or water。 The plan
was tried； and； as may readily be imagined； the amount of effective
work done by this machine…saw was immense； compared with the tedious
process of sawing by hand。
It will be observed； however； that the new method must have seriously
interfered with the labour of the hand…sawyers； and it was but
natural that they should regard the establishment of the saw…mills
with suspicion and hostility。 Hence a long period elapsed before the
hand…sawyers would permit the new machinery to be set up and worked。
The first saw…mill in England was erected by a Dutchman； near London；
in 1663； but was shortly abandoned in consequence of the determined
hostility of the workmen。 More than a century passed before a second
saw…mill was set up； when； in 1767； Mr。 John Houghton； a London
timber…merchant； by the desire and with the approbation of the
Society of Arts； erected one at Limehouse； to be driven by wind。 The
work was directed by one James Stansfield； who had gone over to
Holland for the purpose of learning the art of constructing and
managing the sawing machinery。 But the mill was no sooner erected
than a mob assembled and razed it to the ground。 The principal
rioters having been punished； and the loss to the proprietor having
been made good by the nation； a new mill was shortly after built； and
it was suffered to work without further molestation。
Improved methods of manufacture have usually had to encounter the
same kind of opposition。 Thus； when the Flemish weavers came over to
England in the seventeenth century； bringing with them their skill
and their industry； they excited great jealousy and hostility amongst
the native workmen。 Their competition as workmen was resented as an
injury； b