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solemn assurances that no harm should come to him； but he was too
wise to yield。 Only a few years previously he had seen Giordano
Bruno lured to Rome and burned alive on the Campo dei Fiori。 He
had seen his friend and correspondent； Fra Fulgentio Manfredi；
yield to similar allurements and accept a safe conduct to Rome；
which； though it solemnly guaranteed him against harm； proved as
worthless as that of John Huss at the Council of Constance； the
Inquisition torturing him to death on the spot where； six years
earlier； it had burned Bruno。 He had seen his friend； the
Archdeacon Ribetti； drawn within the clutch of the Vatican； only
to die of 〃a most painful colic〃 immediately after dining with a
confidential chamberlain of the Pope； and； had he lived a few
months longer； he would have seen his friend and confidant；
Antonio de Dominis； Archbishop of Spalato； to whom he had
entrusted a copy of his most important work； enticed to Rome and
put to death by the Inquisition。 Though the Vatican exercised a
strong fascination over its enemies； against Father Paul it was
powerless； he never yielded to it； but kept the even tenor of his
way。＇3＇
＇3＇ A copy of Manfredi's 〃safe conduct〃 is given by Castellani；
Lettere Inedite di F。 P。 S。； p。 12； note。 Nothing could be more
explicit。
In the dispatches which now passed； comedy was mingled with
tragedy。 Very unctuous was the expression by His Holiness of his
apprehensions regarding 〃dangers to the salvation〃 and of his
〃fears for the souls〃 of the Venetian Senators； if they persisted
in asserting their own control of their own state。 Hardly less
touching were the fears expressed by the good Oratorian； Cardinal
Baronius； that 〃a judgment might be brought upon the Republic〃 if
it declined to let the Vatican have its way。 But these
expressions were not likely to prevail with men who had dealt
with Machiavelli。
Uncompromising as ever； Father Paul continued to write letters
and publish treatises which clenched more and more firmly into
the mind of Venice and of Europe the political doctrine of which
he was the apostle；the doctrine that the State is rightfully
independent of the Church；and throughout the Christian world he
was recognized as victor。
Nothing could exceed the bitterness of the attacks upon him；
though some of them； at this day； provoke a smile。 While efforts
were made to discredit him among scholars by spurious writings or
by interpolations in genuine writings； efforts equally ingenious
were made to arouse popular hostility。 One of these was a
painting which represented him writhing amid the flames of hell；
with a legend stating； as a reason for his punishment； that he
had opposed the Holy Father。
Now it was indeed； in the midst of ferocious attacks upon his
reputation and cunning attempts upon his life； that he entered a
new and most effective period of activity。 For years； as the
adviser of Venice； he had studied； both as a historian and as a
statesman； the greatest questions which concerned his country；
and especially those which related to the persistent efforts of
the Vatican to encroach upon Venetian self…government。 The
results of these studies he had embodied in reports which had
shaped the course of the Republic； and now； his learning and
powers of thought being brought to bear upon the policy of Europe
in general； as affected by similar papal encroachments； he began
publishing a series of treatises； which at once attracted general
attention。＇1＇
＇1＇ For the extent to which these attacks were carried； see the
large number in the Sarpi collection at the Cornell University
Library； especially volume ix。
First of these； in 1608； came his work on the Interdict。 Clearly
and concisely it revealed the nature of the recent struggle； the
baselessness of the Vatican claims； and the solidarity of
interest between Venice and all other European states regarding
the question therein settled。 This work of his as a historian
clenched his work as a statesman； from that day forward no nation
has even been seriously threatened with an interdict。
Subsidiary works followed rapidly from his pen； strengthening the
civil power against the clerical； but in 1610 came a treatise；
which marked an epoch； his History of Ecclesiastical
Benefices。＇2＇ In this he dealt with a problem which had become
very serious； not only in Venice； but in every European state；
showed the process by which vast treasures had been taken from
the control of the civil power and heaped up for ecclesiastical
pomp and intrigue； pointed out special wrongs done by the system
to the Church as well as the State； and advocated a reform which
should restore this wealth to better uses。 His arguments spread
widely and sank deep； not only in Italy； but throughout Europe；
and the nineteenth century has seen them applied effectively in
every European country within the Roman obedience。
＇2＇ The old English translation of this book； published in 1736
at Westminster； is by no means a very rare book； and it affords
the general reader perhaps the most accessible means of
understanding Fra Paolo's simplicity； thoroughness； and vigor。
In 1611 he published his work on the Inquisition at Venice；
presenting historical arguments against the uses which
ecclesiasticism； under papal guidance； had made of that tribunal。
These arguments spread far； and developed throughout Europe those
views of the Inquisition which finally led to its destruction。
Minor treatises followed； dealing with state questions arising
between the Vatican and Venice； each treatisethoroughly well
reasoned and convincinghaving a strong effect on the discussion
of similar public questions in every other European nation。
In 1613 came two books of a high order； each marking an epoch。
The first of these was upon the Right of Sanctuary； and in it
Sarpi led the way； which all modern states have followed； out of
the old； vicious system of sanctioning crime by sheltering
criminals。 The cogency of his argument and the value of its
application gained for him an especial tribute by the best
authority on such questions whom Europe had seen；Hugo Grotius。
Closely connected with this work was that upon the Immunity of
the Clergy。 Both this and the previous work were in the same
order of ideas； and the second fastened into the European mind
the reasons why no state can depend upon the Church for the
punishment of clerical criminals。 His argument was a triumphant
vindication of Venice in her struggle with Paul V on this point；
but it was more than that。 It became the practical guide of all
modern states。 Its arguments dissipated the last efforts
throughout Europe to make a distinction； in criminal matters；
between the priestly caste and the world in general。
Among lesser treatises which followed is one which has done much
to shape modern policy regarding public instruction。 This was his
book upon the Education given by the Jesuits。 One idea which it
enforced sank deep into the minds of all thoughtful men；his
statement that Jesuit maxims develop 〃sons disobedient to their
parents； citizens unfaithful to their country； and subjects
undutiful to their sovereign。〃 Jesuit education has indeed been
maintained； and evidences of it may be seen in various European
countries。 The traveler in Italy constantly sees in the larger
Italian towns