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valves of the veins； that he made known the most beautiful
function of the iris；its contractility；and that various
surmises of his regarding heat； light； and sound have since been
developed into scientific truths。 It is altogether likely that；
had he not been drawn from scientific pursuits by his duties as a
statesman； he would have ranked among the greater investigators
and discoverers； not only of Italy； but of the world。
He also studied political and social problems； and he arrived at
one conclusion which； though now trite； was then novel；the
opinion that the aim of punishment should not be vengeance； but
reformation。 In these days and in this country； where one of the
most serious of evils is undue lenity to crime； this opinion may
be imputed to him as a fault； but in those days； when torture was
the main method in procedure and in penalty； his declaration was
honorable both to his head and heart。
With all his devotion to books； he found time to study men。 Even
at school； he had seemed to discern those who would win control。
They discerned something in him also； so that close relations
were formed between him and such leaders as Contarini and
Morosini； with whom he afterwards stood side by side in great
emergencies。
Important missions were entrusted to him。 Five times he visited
Rome to adjust perplexing differences between the papal power and
various interests at Venice。 He was rapidly advanced through most
of the higher offices in his order； and in these he gave a series
of decisions which won the respect of all entitled to form an
opinion。
Naturally he was thought of for high place in the Church； and was
twice presented for a bishopric； but each time he was rejected at
Rome；partly from family claims of less worthy candidates；
partly from suspicions regarding his orthodoxy。 It was objected
that he did not find the whole doctrine of the Trinity in the
first verse of Genesis； that he corresponded with eminent
heretics of England and Germany； that he was not averse to
reforms； that； in short； he was not inclined to wallow in the
slime from which had crawled forth such huge incarnations of evil
as John XXIII。； Julius II。； Sixtus IV。； and Alexander VI。
His orthodox detractors have been wont to represent him as
seeking vengeance for his non…promotion； but his after career
showed amply that personal grievances had little effect upon him。
It is indeed not unlikely that when he saw bishoprics for which
he knew himself well fitted given as sops to poor creatures
utterly unfit in morals or intellect； he may have had doubts
regarding the part taken by the Almighty in selecting them； but
he was reticent； and kept on with his work。 In his cell at Santa
Fosca； he quietly and steadily devoted himself to his cherished
studies； but he continued to study more than books or inanimate
nature。 He was neither a bookworm nor a pedant。 On his various
missions he met and discoursed with churchmen and statesmen
concerned in the greatest transactions of his time； notably at
Mantua with Oliva； secretary of one of the greatest ecclesiastics
at the Council of Trent； at Milan with Cardinal Borromeo； by far
the noblest of all who sat in that assemblage during its eighteen
years； in Rome and elsewhere with Arnauld Ferrier； who had been
French Ambassador at the Council； Cardinal Severina； head of the
Inquisition； Castagna； afterward Pope Urban VII。； and Cardinal
Bellarmine； afterward Sarpi's strongest and noblest opponent。
Nor was this all。 He was not content with books or conversations；
steadily he went on collecting； collating； and testing original
documents bearing upon the great events of his time。 The result
of all this the world was to see later。
He had arrived at middle life and won wide recognition as a
scholar； scientific investigator； and jurist； when there came the
supreme moment of a struggle which had involved Europe for
centuries；a struggle interesting not only the Italy and Europe
of those days； but universal humanity for all time。
During the period following the fall of the Roman Empire of the
West there had been evolved the temporal power of the Roman
Bishop。 It had many vicissitudes。 Sometimes； as in the days of
St。 Leo and St。 Gregory； it based its claims upon noble
assertions of right and justice； and sometimes； as in the hands
of pontiffs like Innocent VIII。 and Paul V。； it sought to force
its way by fanaticism。 Sometimes it strengthened its authority by
real services to humanity； and sometimes by such monstrous frauds
as the Forged Decretals。 Sometimes； as under Popes like Gregory
VII。 and Innocent III。； it laid claim to the mastership of the
world； and sometimes； as with the majority of the pontiffs during
the two centuries before the Reformation； it became mainly the
appanage of a party or faction or family。
Throughout all this history； there appeared in the Church two
great currents of efficient thought。 On one side had been
developed a theocratic theory； giving the papacy a power supreme
in temporal as well as in spiritual matters throughout the world。
Leaders in this during the Middle Ages were St。 Thomas Aquinas
and the Dominicans； leaders in Sarpi's days were the Jesuits；
represented especially in the treatises of Bellarmine at Rome and
in the speeches of Laynez at the Council of Trent。＇1＇
＇1＇ This has been admirably shown by N。 R。 F。 Brown in his
Taylorian Lecture； pages 229…234； in volume for 1889…99。
But another theory； hostile to the despotism of the Church over
the State； had been developed through the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance；it had been strengthened mainly by the utterances
of such men as Dante； aegidio Colonna； John of Paris； Ockham；
Marsilio of Padua； and Laurentius Valla。 Sarpi ranged himself
with the latter of these forces。 Though deeply religious； he
recognized the God…given right of earthly governments to
discharge their duties independent of church control。
Among the many centres of this struggle was Venice。 She was
splendidly religiousas religion was then understood。 She was
made so by her whole environment。 From the beginning she had been
a seafaring power； and seafaring men； from their constant wrestle
with dangers ill understood； are prone to seek and find
supernatural forces。 Nor was this all。 Later； when she had become
rich； powerful； luxurious； licentious； and refractory to the
priesthood； her most powerful citizens felt a need of atoning for
their many sins by splendid religious foundations。 So her people
came to live in an atmosphere of religious observance； and the
bloom and fruitage of their religious hopes and fears are seen in
the whole history of Venetian art；from the rude sculptures of
Torcello and the naive mosaics of San Marco to the glowing
altarpieces and ceilings of John Bellini； Titian； and Tintoretto
and the illuminations of the Grimani Psalter。 No class in Venice
rose above this environment。 Doges and Senators were as
susceptible to it as were the humblest fishermen on the Lido。 In
every one of those glorious frescoes in the corridors and halls
of the Ducal Palace which commemorate the victories of the
Republic； the triumphant Doge or Admiral or General is seen on
his knees making acknowledgment of the divine assistance。 On
every Venetian sequin； from the days when Venice was a power
throughout the earth to that fatal year when the young Bonaparte
toss