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in finance。 Although big businesses have grown bigger and have over a
great area reached the stage of monopoly； yet the number of shareholders
in such enterprises is so large that the actual number of individuals
interested in the capitalist system has continually increased。 Moreover；
though large firms have grown larger； there has been a simultaneous
increase in firms of medium size。 Meanwhile the wage…earners； who were；
according to Marx； to have remained at the bare level of subsistence at
which they were in the England of the first half of the nineteenth century；
have instead profited by the general increase of wealth； though in a lesser
degree than the capitalists。 The supposed iron law of wages has been
proved untrue； so far as labor in civilized countries is concerned。 If we
wish now to find examples of capitalist cruelty analogous to those with
which Marx's book is filled； we shall have to go for most of our material
to the Tropics； or at any rate to regions where there are men of inferior
races to exploit。 Again： the skilled worker of the present day is an
aristocrat in the world of labor。 It is a question with him whether he shall
ally himself with the unskilled worker against the capitalist； or with the
capitalist against the unskilled worker。 Very often he is himself a capitalist
in a small way； and if he is not so individually； his trade union or his
friendly society is pretty sure to be so。 Hence the sharpness of the class
war has not been maintained。 There are gradations； intermediate ranks
between rich and poor； instead of the clear…cut logical antithesis between
the workers who have nothing and the capitalists who have all。 Even in
Germany； which became the home of orthodox Marxianism and developed
a powerful Social…Democratic party； nominally accepting the doctrine of
‘‘Das Kapital'' as all but verbally inspired； even there the enormous
increase of wealth in all classes in the years preceding the war led
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Socialists to revise their beliefs and to adopt an evolutionary rather than a
revolutionary attitude。 Bernstein； a German Socialist who lived long in
England； inaugurated the ‘‘Revisionist'' movement which at last conquered
the bulk of the party。 His criticisms of Marxian orthodoxy are set forth in
his ‘‘Evolutionary Socialism。''＇9＇ Bernstein's work； as is common in Broad
Church writers； consists largely in showing that the Founders did not hold
their doctrines so rigidly as their followers have done。 There is much in
the writings of Marx and Engels that cannot be fitted into the rigid
orthodoxy which grew up among their disciples。 Bernstein's main
criticisms of these disciples； apart from such as we have already
mentioned； consist in a defense of piecemeal action as against revolution。
He protests against the attitude of undue hostility to Liberalism which is
common among Socialists； and he blunts the edge of the Internationalism
which undoubtedly is part of the teachings of Marx。 The workers； he says；
have a Fatherland as soon as they become citizens； and on this basis he
defends that degree of nationalism which the war has since shown to be
prevalent in the ranks of Socialists。 He even goes so far as to maintain that
European nations have a right to tropical territory owing to their higher
civilization。 Such doctrines diminish revolutionary ardor and tend to
transform Socialists into a left wing of the Liberal Party。 But the
increasing prosperity of wage…earners before the war made these
developments inevitable。 Whether the war will have altered conditions in
this respect； it is as yet impossible to know。 Bernstein concludes with the
wise remark that： ‘‘We have to take working men as they are。 And they are
neither so universally paupers as was set out in the Communist Manifesto；
nor so free from prejudices and weaknesses as their courtiers wish to make
us believe。''
＇9＇ Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der
Sozial…Demokratie。''
In March； 1914； Bernstein delivered a lecture in Budapest in which he
withdrew from several of the positions he had taken up （vide Budapest
‘‘Volkstimme；'' March 19； 1914）。
Berstein represents the decay of Marxian orthodoxy from within。
Syndicalism represents an attack against it from without； from the
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standpoint of a doctrine which professes to be even more radical and more
revolutionary than that of Marx and Engels。 The attitude of Syndicalists to
Marx may be seen in Sorel's little book； ‘‘La Decomposition du
Marxisme；'' and in his larger work； ‘‘Reflections on Violence；'' authorized
translation by T。 E。 Hulme （Allen & Unwin； 1915）。 After quoting
Bernstein； with approval in so far as he criticises Marx； Sorel proceeds to
other criticisms of a different order。 He points out （what is true） that
Marx's theoretical economics remain very near to Manchesterism： the
orthodox political economy of his youth was accepted by him on many
points on which it is now known to be wrong。 According to Sorel； the
really essential thing in Marx's teaching is the class war。 Whoever keeps
this alive is keeping alive the spirit of Socialism much more truly than
those who adhere to the letter of Social…Democratic orthodoxy。 On the
basis of the class war； French Syndicalists developed a criticism of Marx
which goes much deeper than those that we have been hitherto considering。
Marx's views on historical development may have been in a greater or less
degree mistaken in fact； and yet the economic and political system which
he sought to create might be just as desirable as his followers suppose。
Syndicalism； however； criticises； not only Marx's views of fact； but also
the goal at which he aims and the general nature of the means which he
recommends。 Marx's ideas were formed at a time when democracy did not
yet exist。 It was in the very year in which ‘‘Das Kapital'' appeared that
urban working men first got the vote in England and universal suffrage
was granted by Bismarck in Northern Germany。 It was natural that great
hopes should be entertained as to what democracy would achieve。 Marx；
like the orthodox economists； imagined that men's opinions are guided by
a more or less enlightened view of economic self…interest； or rather of
economic class interest。 A long experience of the workings of political
democracy has shown that in this respect Disraeli and Bismarck were
shrewder judges of human nature than either Liberals or Socialists。 It has
become increasingly difficult to put trust in the State as a means to liberty；
or in political parties as instruments sufficiently powerful to force the State
into the service of the people。 The modern St