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reconstruction； a sweeping away of all the sources of oppression； a
liberation of men's constructive energies； and a wholly new way of
conceiving and regulating production and economic relations。 This merit
is so great that； in view of it； all minor defects become insignificant； and
this merit Syndicalism will continue to possess even if； as a definite
movement； it should be found to have passed away with the war。
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PART II
PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE
CHAPTER IV
WORK AND PAY
THE man who seeks to create a better order of society has two
resistances to contend with： one that of Nature； the other that of his fellow…
men。 Broadly speaking； it is science that deals with the resistance of
Nature； while politics and social organization are the methods of
overcoming the resistance of men。
The ultimate fact in economics is that Nature only yields commodities
as the result of labor。 The necessity of SOME labor for the satisfaction of
our wants is not imposed by political systems or by the exploitation of the
working classes； it is due to physical laws； which the reformer； like
everyone else； must admit and study。 Before any optimistic economic
project can be accepted as feasible； we must examine whether the physical
conditions of production impose an unalterable veto； or whether they are
capable of being sufficiently modified by science and organization。 Two
connected doctrines must be considered in examining this question： First；
Malthus' doctrine of population； and second； the vaguer； but very
prevalent； view that any surplus above the bare necessaries of life can only
be produced if most men work long hours at monotonous or painful tasks；
leaving little leisure for a civilized existence or rational enjoyment。 I do
not believe that either of these obstacles to optimism will survive a close
scrutiny。 The possibility of technical improvement in the methods of
production is； I believe； so great that； at any rate for centuries to come；
there will be no inevitable barrier to progress in the general well…being by
the simultaneous increase of commodities and diminution of hours of
labor。
This subject has been specially studied by Kropotkin； who； whatever
may be thought of his general theories of politics； is remarkably
instructive； concrete and convincing in all that he says about the
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possibilities of agriculture。 Socialists and Anarchists in the main are
products of industrial life； and few among them have any practical
knowledge on the subject of food production。 But Kropotkin is an
exception。 His two books； ‘‘The Conquest of Bread'' and ‘‘Fields；
Factories and Workshops；'' are very full of detailed information； and； even
making great allowances for an optimistic bias； I do not think it can be
denied that they demonstrate possibilities in which few of us would
otherwise have believed。
Malthus contended； in effect； that population always tends to increase
up to the limit of subsistence； that the production of food becomes more
expensive as its amount is increased； and that therefore； apart from short
exceptional periods when new discoveries produce temporary alleviations；
the bulk of mankind must always be at the lowest level consistent with
survival and reproduction。 As applied to the civilized races of the world；
this doctrine is becoming untrue through the rapid decline in the birth…rate；
but； apart from this decline； there are many other reasons why the doctrine
cannot be accepted； at any rate as regards the near future。 The century
which elapsed after Malthus wrote； saw a very great increase in the
standard of comfort throughout the wage…earning classes； and； owing to
the enormous increase in the productivity of labor； a far greater rise in the
standard of comfort could have been effected if a more just system of
distribution had been introduced。 In former times； when one man's labor
produced not very much more than was needed for one man's subsistence；
it was impossible either greatly to reduce the normal hours of labor； or
greatly to increase the proportion of the population who enjoyed more
than the bare necessaries of life。 But this state of affairs has been
overcome by modern methods of production。 At the present moment； not
only do many people enjoy a comfortable income derived from rent or
interest； but about half the population of most of the civilized countries in
the world is engaged； not in the production of commodities； but in fighting
or in manufacturing munitions of war。 In a time of peace the whole of this
half might be kept in idleness without making the other half poorer than
they would have been if the war had continued； and if； instead of being
idle； they were productively employed； the whole of what they would
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produce would be a divisible surplus over and above present wages。 The
present productivity of labor in Great Britain would suffice to produce an
income of about 1 pound per day for each family； even without any of
those improvements in methods which are obviously immediately
possible。
But； it will be said； as population increases； the price of food must
ultimately increase also as the sources of supply in Canada； the Argentine；
Australia and elsewhere are more and more used up。 There must come a
time； so pessimists will urge； when food becomes so dear that the ordinary
wage…earner will have little surplus for expenditure upon other things。 It
may be admitted that this would be true in some very distant future if the
population were to continue to increase without limit。 If the whole surface
of the world were as densely populated as London is now； it would； no
doubt； require almost the whole labor of the population to produce the
necessary food from the few spaces remaining for agriculture。 But there is
no reason to suppose that the population will continue to increase
indefinitely； and in any case the prospect is so remote that it may be
ignored in all practical considerations。
Returning from these dim speculations to the facts set forth by
Kropotkin； we find it proved in his writings that； by methods of intensive
cultivation； which are already in actual operation； the amount of food
produced on a given area can be increased far beyond anything that most
uninformed persons suppose possible。 Speaking of the market…gardeners
in Great Britain； in the neighborhood of Paris； and in other places； he
s