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Po？〃
If the reader； in running through this book； should complain of meeting with nothing but quotations from other works； extracts from journals and public lectures； comments upon laws； and interpretations of them； I would remind him that the very object of this memoir is to establish the conformity of my opinion concerning property with that universally held； that； far from aiming at a paradox； it has been my main study to follow the advice of the world； and； finally； that my sole pretension is to clearly formulate the general belief。 I cannot repeat it too often；and I confess it with pride；I teach absolutely nothing that is new； and I should regard the doctrine which I advocate as radically erroneous； if a single witness should testify against it。
Let us now trace the revolutions in property among the Barbarians。
As long as the German tribes dwelt in their forests； it did not occur to them to divide and appropriate the soil。 The land was held in common： each individual could plow； sow； and reap。 But； when the empire was once invaded； they bethought themselves of sharing the land； just as they shared spoils after a victory。 〃Hence；〃 says M。 Laboulaye； 〃the expressions _sortes Burgundiorum Gothorum_ and ｛GREEK； ‘ k ｝； hence the German words _allod_； allodium； and _loos_； lot； which are used in all modern languages to designate the gifts of chance。〃
Allodial property； at least with the mass of coparceners； was originally held； then； in equal shares； for all of the prizes were equal； or； at least； equivalent。 This property； like that of the Romans； was wholly individual； independent； exclusive； transferable； and consequently susceptible of accumulation and invasion。 But； instead of its being； as was the case among the Romans； the large estate which； through increase and usury； subordinated and absorbed the small one； among the Barbarians fonder of war than of wealth； more eager to dispose of persons than to appropriate thingsit was the warrior who； through superiority of arms； enslaved his adversary。 The Roman wanted matter； the Barbarian wanted man。 Consequently； in the feudal ages； rents were almost nothing；simply a hare； a partridge； a pie； a few pints of wine brought by a little girl； or a Maypole set up within the suzerain's reach。 In return； the vassal or incumbent had to follow the seignior to battle （a thing which happened almost every day）； and equip and feed himself at his own expense。 〃This spirit of the German tribesthis spirit of companionship and associationgoverned the territory as it governed individuals。 The lands； like the men； were secured to a chief or seignior by a bond of mutual protection and fidelity。 This subjection was the labor of the German epoch which gave birth to feudalism。 By fair means or foul； every proprietor who could not be a chief was forced to be a vassal。〃 （Laboulaye： History of Property。）
By fair means or foul； every mechanic who cannot be a master has to be a journeyman； every proprietor who is not an invader will be invaded； every producer who cannot； by the exploitation of other men； furnish products at less than their proper value； will lose his labor。 Corporations and masterships； which are hated so bitterly； but which will reappear if we are not careful； are the necessary results of the principle of competition which is inherent in property； their organization was patterned formerly after that of the feudal hierarchy； which was the result of the subordination of men and possessions。
The times which paved the way for the advent of feudalism and the reappearance of large proprietors were times of carnage and the most frightful anarchy。 Never before had murder and violence made such havoc with the human race。 The tenth century； among others； if my memory serves me rightly； was called the CENTURY OF IRON。 His property； his life； and the honor of his wife and children always in danger the small proprietor made haste to do homage to his seignior； and to bestow something on the church of his freehold； that he might receive protection and security。
〃Both facts and laws bear witness that from the sixth to the tenth century the proprietors of small freeholds were gradually plundered； or reduced by the encroachments of large proprietors and counts to the condition of either vassals or tributaries。 The Capitularies are full of repressive provisions； but the incessant reiteration of these threats only shows the perseverance of the evil and the impotency of the government。 Oppression； moreover； varies but little in its methods。 The complaints of the free proprietors； and the groans of the plebeians at the time of the Gracchi； were one and the same。 It is said that； whenever a poor man refused to give his estate to the bishop； the curate； the count； the judge； or the centurion； these immediately sought an opportunity to ruin him。 They made him serve in the army until； completely ruined； he was induced； by fair means or foul； to give up his freehold。〃Laboulaye： History of Property。
How many small proprietors and manufacturers have not been ruined by large ones through chicanery； law…suits； and competition？ Strategy； violence； and usury；such are the proprietor's methods of plundering the laborer。
Thus we see property； at all ages and in all its forms； oscillating by virtue of its principle between two opposite terms；extreme division and extreme accumulation。
Property； at its first term； is almost null。 Reduced to personal exploitation； it is property only potentially。 At its second term； it exists in its perfection； then it is truly property。
When property is widely distributed； society thrives； progresses； grows； and rises quickly to the zenith of its power。 Thus； the Jews； after leaving Babylon with Esdras and Nehemiah； soon became richer and more powerful than they had been under their kings。 Sparta was in a strong and prosperous condition during the two or three centuries which followed the death of Lycurgus。 The best days of Athens were those of the Persian war； Rome； whose inhabitants were divided from the beginning into two classes； the exploiters and the exploited；knew no such thing as peace。
When property is concentrated； society； abusing itself； polluted； so to speak； grows corrupt； wears itself outhow shall I express this horrible idea？plunges into long…continued and fatal luxury。
When feudalism was established； society had to die of the same disease which killed it under the Caesars；I mean accumulated property。 But humanity； created for an immortal destiny； is deathless； the revolutions which disturb it are purifying crises； invariably followed by more vigorous health。 In the fifth century； the invasion of the Barbarians partially restored the world to a state of natural equality。 In the twelfth century； a new spirit pervading all society gave the slave his rights； and through justice breathed new life into the heart of nations。 It has been said； and often repeated； that Christianity regenerated the world。 That is true； but it seems to me that there is a mistake in the date。 Christianity had no influence upon Roman society； when the Barbarians came； that society had disappeared。 For such is God's curse upon property； every political organization based upon the exploitation of man 。 shall perish： slave…labor is death to the race of tyrants。 The patrician families became extinct； as the feudal families did； and as all aristocracies must。
It was in the middle ages； when a reactionary movement was beginning to secretly undermine accumulated property； that the influence of Christianity was first exercised to its full extent。
The destruction of feudalism； the conversion of the serf into the commoner； the emancipation of the communes； and the admission of the Third Estate to political power； were deeds accomplished by Christianity exclusively。 I say Christianity； not ecclesiasticism； for the priests and bishops were themselves large proprietors； and as such often persecuted the villeins。 Without the Christianity of the middle ages； the existence of modern society could not be explained； and would not be possible。
The truth of this assertion is shown by the very facts which M。 Laboulaye quotes； alth