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bylon； Nehemiah； the chief of the Jewish nation； abolished debts； Lycurgus abolished debts； Solon abolished debts； the Roman people； after the expulsion of the kings until the accession of the Caesars； struggled with the Senate for the abolition of debts。 Afterwards； towards the end of the republic； and long after the establishment of the empire； agriculture being abandoned； and the provinces becoming depopulated in consequence of the excessive rates of interest； the emperors freely granted the lands to whoever would cultivate them；that is； they abolished debts。 No one； except Lycurgus； who went to the other extreme； ever perceived that the great point was； not to release debtors by a coup d'etat； but to prevent the contraction of debts in future。
On the contrary； the most democratic governments were always exclusively based upon individual property； so that the social element of all these republics was war between the citizens。
Solon decreed that a census should be taken of all fortunes； regulated political rights by the result； granted to the larger proprietors more influence； established the balance of powers； in a word； inserted in the constitution the most active leaven of discord； as if； instead of a legislator chosen by the people； he had been their greatest enemy。 Is it not； indeed； the height of imprudence to grant equality of political rights to men of unequal conditions？ If a manufacturer； uniting all his workmen in a joint…stock company； should give to each of them a consultative and deliberative voice；that is； should make all of them masters；would this equality of mastership secure continued inequality of wages？ That is the whole political system of Solon； reduced to its simplest expression。
〃In giving property a just preponderance；〃 says M。 Pastoret； 〃Solon repaired； as far as he was able； his first official act； the abolition of debts。 。 。 。 He thought he owed it to public peace to make this great sacrifice of acquired rights and natural equity。 But the violation of individual property and written contracts is a bad preface to a public code。〃
In fact； such violations are always cruelly punished。 In '89 and '93； the possessions of the nobility and the clergy were confiscated； the clever proletaires were enriched； and to…day the latter； having become aristocrats； are making us pay dearly for our fathers' robbery。 What； therefore； is to be done now？ It is not for us to violate right； but to restore it。 Now； it would be a violation of justice to dispossess some and endow others； and then stop there。 We must gradually lower the rate of interest； organize industry； associate laborers and their functions； and take a census of the large fortunes； not for the purpose of granting privileges； but that we may effect their redemption by settling a life…annuity upon their proprietors。 We must apply on a large scale the principle of collective production； give the State eminent domain over all capital！ make each producer responsible； abolish the custom…house； and transform every profession and trade into a public function。 Thereby large fortunes will vanish without confiscation or violence； individual possession will establish itself； without communism； under the inspection of the republic； and equality of conditions will no longer depend simply on the will of citizens。
Of the authors who have written upon the Romans； Bossuet and Montesquieu occupy prominent positions in the first rank； the first being generally regarded as the father of the philosophy of history； and the second as the most profound writer upon law and politics。 Nevertheless； it could be shown that these two great writers； each of them imbued with the prejudices of their century and their cloth； have left the question of the causes of the rise and fall of the Romans precisely where they found it。
Bossuet is admirable as long as he confines himself to description： witness； among other passages； the picture which he has given us of Greece before the Persian War； and which seems to have inspired 〃Telemachus；〃 the parallel between Athens and Sparta； drawn twenty times since Bossuet； the description of the character and morals of the ancient Romans； and； finally； the sublime peroration which ends the 〃Discourse on Universal History。〃 But when the famous historian deals with causes； his philosophy is at fault。
〃The tribunes always favored the division of captured lands； or the proceeds of their sale； among the citizens。 The Senate steadfastly opposed those laws which were damaging to the State； and wanted the price of lands to be awarded to the public treasury。〃
Thus； according to Bossuet； the first and greatest wrong of civil wars was inflicted upon the people； who； dying of hunger； demanded that the lands； which they had shed their blood to conquer； should be given to them for cultivation。 The patricians； who bought them to deliver to their slaves； had more regard for justice and the public interests。 How little affects the opinions of men！ If the roles of Cicero and the Gracchi had been inverted； Bossuet； whose sympathies were aroused by the eloquence of the great orator more than by the clamors of the tribunes； would have viewed the agrarian laws in quite a different light。 He then would have understood that the interest of the treasury was only a pretext； that； when the captured lands were put up at auction； the patricians hastened to buy them； in order to profit by the revenues from them；certain； moreover； that the price paid would come back to them sooner or later； in exchange either for supplies furnished by them to the republic； or for the subsistence of the multitude； who could buy only of them； and whose services at one time； and poverty at another； were rewarded by the State。 For a State does not hoard； on the contrary； the public funds always return to the people。 If； then； a certain number of men are the sole dealers in articles of primary necessity； it follows that the public treasury； in passing and repassing through their hands； deposits and accumulates real property there。
When Menenius related to the people his fable of the limbs and the stomach； if any one had remarked to this story…teller that the stomach freely gives to the limbs the nourishment which it freely receives； but that the patricians gave to the plebeians only for cash； and lent to them only at usury； he undoubtedly would have silenced the wily senator； and saved the people from a great imposition。 The Conscript Fathers were fathers only of their own line。 As for the common people； they were regarded as an impure race； exploitable； taxable； and workable at the discretion and mercy of their masters。
As a general thing； Bossuet shows little regard for the people。 His monarchical and theological instincts know nothing but authority； obedience； and alms…giving； under the name of charity。
This unfortunate disposition constantly leads him to mistake symptoms for causes； and his depth； which is so much admired； is borrowed from his authors； and amounts to very little； after all。
When he says； for instance； that 〃the dissensions in the republic； and finally its fall； were caused by the jealousies of its citizens； and their love of liberty carried to an extreme and intolerable extent；〃 are we not tempted to ask him what caused those JEALOUSIES？what inspired the people with that lOVE OF LIBERTY； EXTREME AND INTOLERABLE？ It would be useless to reply； The corruption of morals； the disregard for the ancient poverty； the debaucheries； luxury； and class jealousies； the seditious character of the Gracchi； &c。 Why did the morals become corrupt； and whence arose those eternal dissensions between the patricians and the plebeians？
In Rome； as in all other places； the dissension between the rich and the poor was not caused directly by the desire for wealth （people； as a general thing； do not covet that which they deem it illegitimate to acquire）； but by a natural instinct of the plebeians； which led them to seek the cause of their adversity in the constitution of the republic。 So we are doing to…day； instead of altering our public economy； we demand an electoral reform。 The Roman people wished to return to the social compact； they asked