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Let us commence with the simplest and least doubtful cases。
The mother； who protects her son at the peril of her life； and sacrifices every thing to his support； is in society with him she is a good mother。 She； on the contrary； who abandons her child； is unfaithful to the social instinct；maternal love being one of its many features； she is an unnatural mother。
If I plunge into the water to rescue a drowning man； I am his brother； his associate； if； instead of aiding him； I sink him； I am his enemy； his murderer。
Whoever bestows alms treats the poor man as his associate； not thoroughly； it is true； but only in respect to the amount which he shares with him。 Whoever takes by force or stratagem that which is not the product of his labor； destroys his social characterhe is a brigand。
The Samaritan who relieves the traveller lying by the wayside； dresses his wounds； comforts him； and supplies him with money； thereby declares himself his associatehis neighbor； the priest； who passes by on the other side； remains unassociated； and is his enemy。
In all these cases； man is moved by an internal attraction towards his fellow； by a secret sympathy which causes him to love； congratulate； and condole； so that； to resist this attraction； his will must struggle against his nature。
But in these respects there is no decided difference between man and the animals。 With them； as long as the weakness of their young endears them to their mothers；in a word； associates them with their mothers；the latter protect the former； at the peril of their lives； with a courage which reminds us of our heroes dying for their country。 Certain species unite for hunting purposes； seek each other； call each other （a poet would say invite each other）； to share their prey； in danger they aid； protect； and warn each other。 The elephant knows how to help his companion out of the ditch into which the latter has fallen。 Cows form a circle； with their horns outward and their calves in the centre； in order to repel the attacks of wolves。 Horses and pigs； on hearing a cry of distress from one of their number； rush to the spot whence it comes。 What descriptions I might give of their marriages； the tenderness of the males towards the females； and the fidelity of their loves！ Let us add； however；to be entirely justthat these touching demonstrations of society； fraternity； and love of neighbor； do not prevent the animals from quarrelling； fighting； and outrageously abusing one another while gaining their livelihood and showing their gallantry； the resemblance between them and ourselves is perfect。
The social instinct； in man and beast； exists to a greater or less degreeits nature is the same。 Man has the greater need of association； and employs it more； the animal seems better able to endure isolation。 In man； social needs are more imperative and complex； in the beast； they seem less intense； less diversified； less regretted。 Society； in a word； aims； in the case of man； at the preservation of the race and the individual； with the animals； its object is more exclusively the preservation of the race。
As yet； we have met with no claim which man can make for himself alone。 The social instinct and the moral sense he shares with the brutes； and when he thinks to become god…like by a few acts of charity； justice； and devotion； he does not perceive that in so acting he simply obeys an instinct wholly animal in its nature。 As we are good； loving； tender； just； so we are passionate； greedy； lewd； and vindictive； that is； we are like the beasts。 Our highest virtues appear； in the last analysis； as blind； impulsive instincts。 What subjects for canonization and apotheosis！
There is； however； a difference between us two…handed bipeds and other living creatureswhat is it？
A student of philosophy would hasten to reply： 〃This difference lies in the fact that we are conscious of our social faculty； while the animals are unconscious of theirsin the fact that while we reflect and reason upon the operation of our social instinct； the animals do nothing of the kind。〃
I will go farther。 It is by our reflective and reasoning powers； with which we seem to be exclusively endowed； that we know that it is injurious； first to others and then to ourselves； to resist the social instinct which governs us； and which we call JUSTICE。 It is our reason which teaches us that the selfish man； the robber； the murdererin a word； the traitor to societysins against Nature； and is guilty with respect to others and himself； when he does wrong wilfully。 Finally； it is our social sentiment on the one hand； and our reason on the other； which cause us to think that beings such as we should take the responsibility of their acts。 Such is the principle of remorse； revenge； and penal justice。
But this proves only an intellectual diversity between the animals and man； not at all an affectional one； for； although we reason upon our relations with our fellows； we likewise reason upon our most trivial actions；such as drinking； eating； choosing a wife； or selecting a dwelling…place。 We reason upon things earthly and things heavenly； there is nothing to which our reasoning powers are not applicable。 Now； just as the knowledge of external phenomena； which we acquire； has no influence upon their causes and laws； so reflection； by illuminating our instinct； enlightens us as to our sentient nature； but does not alter its character； it tells us what our morality is； but neither changes nor modifies it。 Our dissatisfaction with ourselves after doing wrong； the indignation which we feel at the sight of injustice； the idea of deserved punishment and due remuneration； are effects of reflection； and not immediate effects of instinct and emotion。 Our appreciation （I do not say exclusive appreciation； for the animals also realize that they have done wrong； and are indignant when one of their number is attacked； but）； our infinitely superior appreciation of our social duties； our knowledge of good and evil； does not establish； as regards morality； any vital difference between man and the beasts。
％ 2。Of the first and second degrees of Sociability。
I insist upon the fact； which I have just pointed out； as one of the most important facts of anthropology。
The sympathetic attraction； which causes us to associate； is； by reason of its blind； unruly nature； always governed by temporary impulse； without regard to higher rights； and without distinction of merit or priority。 The bastard dog follows indifferently all who call it； the suckling child regards every man as its father and every woman as its nurse； every living creature； when deprived of the society of animals of its species； seeks companionship in its solitude。 This fundamental characteristic of the social instinct renders intolerable and even hateful the friendship of frivolous persons； liable to be infatuated with every new face； accommodating to all whether good or bad； and ready to sacrifice； for a passing liaison； the oldest and most honorable affections。 The fault of such beings is not in the heartit is in the judgment。 Sociability； in this degree； is a sort of magnetism awakened in us by the contemplation of a being similar to ourselves； but which never goes beyond the person who feels it； it may be reciprocated； but not communicated。 Love； benevolence； pity； sympathy； call it what you will； there is nothing in it which deserves esteem；nothing which lifts man above the beast。
The second degree of sociability is justice； which may be defined as the RECOGNITION OF THE EQUALITY BETWEEN ANOTHER'S PERSONALITY AND OUR OWN。 The sentiment of justice we share with the animals； we alone can form an exact idea of it； but our idea； as has been said already； does not change its nature。 We shall soon see how man rises to a third degree of sociability which the animals are incapable of reaching。 But I must first prove by metaphysics that SOCIETY； JUSTICE； and EQUALITY； are three equivalent terms；three expressions meaning the same thing； whose mutual conversion is always allowable。
If； amid the confusion of a shipwreck； having escaped in a boat with some provisions； I see a man struggling with the waves； am I bound to go to