按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
ue； or its productive utility； will be reduced to zero； will be nothing at all。 Then we must seek the amount of wages to be paid between infinity on the one hand and nothing on the other； at an equal distance from each； since all rights and liberties are entitled to equal respect； in other words； it is not the intrinsic value； but the relative value； of the thing sold that needs to be fixed。 The question grows simpler： what is this relative value？ To what reward does a poem like the 〃Iliad〃 entitle its author？
The first business of political economy； after fixing its definitions； was the solution of this problem； now； not only has it not been solved； but it has been declared insoluble。 According to the economists； the relative or exchangeable value of things cannot be absolutely determined； it necessarily varies。
〃The value of a thing；〃 says Say； 〃is a positive quantity； but only for a given moment。 It is its nature to perpetually vary； to change from one point to another。 Nothing can fix it absolutely； because it is based on needs and means of production which vary with every moment。 These variations complicate economical phenomena； and often render them very difficult of observation and solution。 I know no remedy for this； it is not in our power to change the nature of things。〃
Elsewhere Say says； and repeats； that value being based on utility； and utility depending entirely on our needs； whims； customs； &c。； value is as variable as opinion。 Now； political economy being the science of values； of their production； distribution； exchange； and consumption；if exchangeable value cannot be absolutely determined； how is political economy possible？ How can it be a science？ How can two economists look each other in the face without laughing？ How dare they insult metaphysicians and psychologists？ What！ that fool of a Descartes imagined that philosophy needed an immovable basean _aliquid inconcussum_on which the edifice of science might be built； and he was simple enough to search for it！ And the Hermes of economy； Trismegistus Say； devoting half a volume to the amplification of that solemn text； _political economy is a science_； has the courage to affirm immediately afterwards that this science cannot determine its object；which is equivalent to saying that it is without a principle or foundation！ He does not know； then； the illustrious Say； the nature of a science； or rather； he knows nothing of the subject which he discusses。
Say's example has borne its fruits。 Political economy； as it exists at present； resembles ontology： discussing effects and causes； it knows nothing； explains nothing； decides nothing。 The ideas honored with the name of economic laws are nothing more than a few trifling generalities； to which the economists thought to give an appearance of depth by clothing them in high…sounding words。 As for the attempts that have been made by the economists to solve social problems； all that can be said of them is； that； if a glimmer of sense occasionally appears in their lucubrations； they immediately fall back into absurdity。 For twenty…five years political economy； like a heavy fog； has weighed upon France； checking the efforts of the mind； and setting limits to liberty。
Has every creation of industry a venal； absolute； unchangeable； and consequently legitimate and true value？Yes。
Can every product of man be exchanged for some other product of man？Yes； again。
How many nails is a pair of shoes worth？
If we can solve this appalling problem； we shall have the key of the social system for which humanity has been searching for six thousand years。 In the presence of this problem； the economist recoils confused； the peasant who can neither read nor write replies without hesitation： 〃As many as can be made in the same time； and with the same expense。〃
The absolute value of a thing； then； is its cost in time and expense。 How much is a diamond worth which costs only the labor of picking it up？Nothing； it is not a product of man。 How much will it be worth when cut and mounted？The time and expense which it has cost the laborer。 Why； then； is it sold at so high a price？Because men are not free。 Society must regulate the exchange and distribution of the rarest things； as it does that of the most common ones； in such a way that each may share in the enjoyment of them。 What； then； is that value which is based upon opinion？Delusion； injustice； and robbery。
By this rule； it is easy to reconcile every body。 If the mean term； which we are searching for； between an infinite value and no value at all is expressed in the case of every product； by the amount of time and expense which the product cost； a poem which has cost its author thirty years of labor and an outlay of ten thousand francs in journeys； books； &c。； must be paid for by the ordinary wages received by a laborer during thirty years； PLUS ten thousand francs indemnity for expense incurred。 Suppose the whole amount to be fifty thousand francs； if the society which gets the benefit of the production include a million of men； my share of the debt is five centimes。
This gives rise to a few observations。
1。 The same product； at different times and in different places； may cost more or less of time and outlay； in this view； it is true that value is a variable quantity。 But this variation is not that of the economists； who place in their list of the causes of the variation of values； not only the means of production； but taste； caprice； fashion； and opinion。 In short； the true value of a thing is invariable in its algebraic expression； although it may vary in its monetary expression。
2。 The price of every product in demand should be its cost in time and outlayneither more nor less： every product not in demand is a loss to the producera commercial non…value。
3。 The ignorance of the principle of evaluation； and the difficulty under many circumstances of applying it； is the source of commercial fraud； and one of the most potent causes of the inequality of fortunes。
4。 To reward certain industries and pay for certain products； a society is needed which corresponds in size with the rarity of talents； the costliness of the products； and the variety of the arts and sciences。 If； for example； a society of fifty farmers can support a schoolmaster； it requires one hundred for a shoemaker； one hundred and fifty for a blacksmith； two hundred for a tailor； &c。 If the number of farmers rises to one thousand； ten thousand； one hundred thousand； &c。； as fast as their number increases； that of the functionaries which are earliest required must increase in the same proportion； so that the highest functions become possible only in the most powerful societies。＇1＇ That is the peculiar feature of capacities； the character of genius； the seal of its glory； cannot arise and develop itself； except in the bosom of a great nation。 But this physiological condition； necessary to the existence of genius； adds nothing to its social rights： far from that；the delay in its appearance proves that； in economical and civil affairs； the loftiest intelligence must submit to the equality of possessions； an equality which is anterior to it； and of which it constitutes the crown。
＇1＇ How many citizens are needed to support a professor of philosophy？Thirty…five millions。 How many for an economist？ Two billions。 And for a literary man； who is neither a savant； nor an artist； nor a philosopher； nor an economist； and who writes newspaper novels？None。
This is severe on our pride； but it is an inexorable truth。 And here psychology comes to the aid of social economy； giving us to understand that talent and material recompense have no common measure； that； in this respect； the condition of all producers is equal： consequently； that all comparison between them； and all distinction in fortunes； is impossible。
_ _In fact； every work coming from the hands of mancompared with the raw material of which it is composedis beyond price。 In this respect； the distance is as great between a pair of wooden shoes and the trunk of a walnut…tree； as between a statue by Scopas and a block of marble。 The genius of the simplest mechanic exerts as much influence over t