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independent republics in the heart of their own dominions。
In order to understand this； it must be remembered that in
those days the sovereign of perhaps no country in Europe was able
to protect； through the whole extent of his dominions； the weaker
part of his subjects from the oppression of the great lords。
Those whom the law could not protect； and who were not strong
enough to defend themselves； were obliged either to have recourse
to the protection of some great lord； and in order to obtain it
to become either his slaves or vassals； or to enter into a league
of mutual defence for the common protection of one another。 The
inhabitants of cities and burghs； considered as single
individuals； had no power to defend themselves； but by entering
into a league of mutual defence with their neighbours； they were
capable of making no contemptible resistance。 The lords despised
the burghers； whom they considered not only as of a different
order； but as a parcel of emancipated slaves； almost of a
different species from themselves。 The wealth of the burghers
never failed to provoke their envy and indignation； and they
plundered them upon every occasion without mercy or remorse。 The
burghers naturally hated and feared the lords。 The king hated and
feared them too； but though perhaps he might despise； he had no
reason either to hate or fear the burghers。 Mutual interest；
therefore； disposed them to support the king； and the king to
support them against the lords。 They were the enemies of his
enemies； and it was his interest to render them as secure and
independent of those enemies as he could。 By granting them
magistrates of their own； the privilege of making bye…laws for
their own government； that of building walls for their own
defence； and that of reducing all their inhabitants under a sort
of military discipline； he gave them all the means of security
and independency of the barons which it was in his power to
bestow。 Without the establishment of some regular government of
this kind； without some authority to compel their inhabitants to
act according to some certain plan or system； no voluntary league
of mutual defence could either have afforded them any permanent
security； or have enabled them to give the king any considerable
support。 By granting them the farm of their town in fee； he took
away from those whom he wished to have for his friends； and； if
one may say so； for his allies； all ground of jealousy and
suspicion that he was ever afterwards to oppress them； either by
raising the farm rent of their town or by granting it to some
other farmer。
The princes who lived upon the worst terms with their barons
seem accordingly to have been the most liberal in grants of this
kind to their burghs。 King John of England； for example； appears
to have been a most munificent benefactor to his towns。 Philip
the First of France lost all authority over his barons。 Towards
the end of his reign； his son Lewis； known afterwards by the name
of Lewis the Fat； consulted； according to Father Daniel； with the
bishops of the royal demesnes concerning the most proper means of
restraining the violence of the great lords。 Their advice
consisted of two different proposals。 One was to erect a new
order of jurisdiction； by establishing magistrates and a town
council in every considerable town of his demesnes。 The other was
to form a new militia； by making the inhabitants of those towns；
under the command of their own magistrates； march out upon proper
occasions to the assistance of the king。 It is from this period；
according to the French antiquarians； that we are to date the
institution of the magistrates and councils of cities in France。
It was during the unprosperous reigns of the princes of the house
of Suabia that the greater part of the free towns of Germany
received the first grants of their privileges； and that the
famous Hanseatic league first became formidable。
The militia of the cities seems； in those times； not to have
been inferior to that of the country； and as they could be more
readily assembled upon any sudden occasion； they frequently had
the advantage in their disputes with the neighbouring lords。 In
countries； such as Italy and Switzerland； in which； on account
either of their distance from the principal seat of government；
of the natural strength of the country itself； or of some other
reason； the sovereign came to lose the whole of his authority；
the cities generally became independent republics； and conquered
all the nobility in their neighbourhood； obliging them to pull
down their castles in the country and to live； like other
peaceable inhabitants； in the city。 This is the short history of
the republic of Berne as well as of several other cities in
Switzerland。 If you except Venice； for of that city the history
is somewhat different； it is the history of all the considerable
Italian republics； of which so great a number arose and perished
between the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the sixteenth
century。
In countries such as France or England； where the authority
of the sovereign； though frequently very low； never was destroyed
altogether； the cities had no opportunity of becoming entirely
independent。 They became； however； so considerable that the
sovereign could impose no tax upon them； besides the stated
farm…rent of the town； without their own consent。 They were；
therefore； called upon to send deputies to the general assembly
of the states of the kingdom； where they might join with the
clergy and the barons in granting； upon urgent occasions； some
extraordinary aid to the king。 Being generally； too； more
favourable to his power； their deputies seem； sometimes； to have
been employed by him as a counterbalance in those assemblies to
the authority of the great lords。 Hence the origin of the
representation of burghs in the states…general of all the great
monarchies in Europe。
Order and good government； and along with them the liberty
and security of individuals； were； in this manner； established in
cities at a time when the occupiers of land in the country were
exposed to every sort of violence。 But men in this defenceless
state naturally content themselves with their necessary
subsistence； because to acquire more might only tempt the
injustice of their oppressors。 On the contrary； when they are
secure of enjoying the fruits of their industry； they naturally
exert it to better their condition； and to acquire not only the
necessaries； but the conveniences and elegancies of life。 That
industry； therefore； which aims at something more than necessary
subsistence； was established in cities long before it was
commonly practised by the occupiers of land in the country。 If in
the hands of a poor cultivator； oppressed with the servitude of
villanage； some little stock should accumulate； he would
naturally conceal it with great care from his master； to whom it
would otherwise have belonged； and take the first opportunity of
running away to a town。 The law was at that time so indulgent to
the inhabitants of towns； and so desirous of diminishing the
authority of the lords over those of the country； that if he
could conceal himself there from the pursuit of his lord for a
year； he was free for ever。 Whatever stock； therefore；
accumulated in the hands of the industrious part of the
inhabitants of the country naturally took refuge in cities as the
only sanctuaries in which it could be secure to the person that
acquired it。
The inhabitants of a city； it is true； must always
ultimately derive their subsistence； and the whole materials and
means of their industry； from the country。 But those of a city；
situated near either the sea coast or the banks of a navigable
river； are not necessarily confined to derive them from the
country in their neighbourhood。 They have a much wider range； and
may draw them from the most remote corners of the world； either
in exchange for the manufactured produce of their own industry；
or by performing the office of carriers between distant