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the tenant building upon the land of which he had no lease； and
trusting that the honour of his landlord would take no advantage
of so important an improvement。 Those laws and customs so
favourable to the yeomanry have perhaps contributed more to the
present grandeur of England than all their boasted regulations of
commerce taken together。
The law which secures the longest leases against successors
of every kind is； so far as I know； peculiar to Great Britain。 It
was introduced into Scotland so early as 1449； a law of James II。
Its beneficial influence； however； has been much obstructed by
entails； the heirs of entail being generally restrained from
letting leases for any long term of years； frequently for more
than one year。 A late Act of Parliament has； in this respect；
somewhat slackened their fetters； though they are still by much
too strait。 In Scotland； besides； as no leasehold gives a vote
for a Member of Parliament； the yeomanry are upon this account
less respectable to their landlords than in England。
In other parts of Europe； after it was found convenient to
secure tenants both against heirs and purchasers； the term of
their security was still limited to a very short period； in
France； for example； to nine years from the commencement of the
lease。 It has in that country； indeed； been lately extended to
twenty…seven； a period still too short to encourage the tenant to
make the most important improvements。 The proprietors of land
were anciently the legislators of every part of Europe。 The laws
relating to land； therefore； were all calculated for what they
supposed the interest of the proprietor。 It was for his interest；
they had imagined； that no lease granted by any of his
predecessors should hinder him from enjoying； during a long term
of years； the full value of his land。 Avarice and injustice are
always short…sighted； and they did not foresee how much this
regulation must obstruct improvement； and thereby hurt in the
long…run the real interest of the landlord。
The farmers too； besides paying the rent； were anciently； it
was supposed； bound to perform a great number of services to the
landlord； which were seldom either specified in the lease； or
regulated by any precise rule； but by the use and wont of the
manor or barony。 These services； therefore； being almost entirely
arbitrary； subjected the tenant to many vexations。 In Scotland
the abolition of all services not precisely stipulated in the
lease has in the course of a few years very much altered for the
better the condition of the yeomanry of that country。
The public services to which the yeomanry were bound were
not less arbitrary than the private ones。 To make and maintain
the high roads； a servitude which still subsists； I believe；
everywhere； though with different degrees of oppression in
different countries； was not the only one。 When the king's
troops； when his household or his officers of any kind passed
through any part of the country； the yeomanry were bound to
provide them with horses； carriages； and provisions； at a price
regulated by the purveyor。 Great Britain is； I believe； the only
monarchy in Europe where the oppression of purveyance has been
entirely abolished。 It still subsists in France and Germany。
The public taxes to which they were subject were as
irregular and oppressive as the services。 The ancient lords；
though extremely unwilling to grant themselves any pecuniary aid
to their sovereign； easily allowed him to tallage； as they called
it their tenants； and had not knowledge enough to foresee how
much this must in the end affect their own revenue。 The taille；
as it still subsists in France； may serve as an example of those
ancient tallages。 It is a tax upon the supposed profits of the
farmer； which they estimate by the stock that he has upon the
farm。 It is his interest； therefore； to appear to have as little
as possible； and consequently to employ as little as possible in
its cultivation； and none in its improvement。 Should any stock
happen to accumulate in the hands of a French farmer； the taille
is almost equal to a prohibition of its ever being employed upon
the land。 This tax； besides； is supposed to dishonour whoever is
subject to it； and to degrade him below； not only the rank of a
gentleman； but that of a burgher； and whoever rents the lands of
another becomes subject to it。 No gentleman； nor even any burgher
who has stock； will submit to this degradation。 This tax；
therefore； not only hinders the stock which accumulates upon the
land from being employed in its improvement； but drives away an
other stock from it。 The ancient tenths and fifteenths； so usual
in England in former times； seem； so far as they affected the
land； to have been taxes of the same nature with the taille。
Under all these discouragements； little improvement could be
expected from the occupiers of land。 That order of people； with
all the liberty and security which law can give； must always
improve under great disadvantages。 The farmer； compared with the
proprietor； is as a merchant who trades with borrowed money
compared with one who trades with his own。 The stock of both may
improve； but that of the one； with only equal good conduct； must
always improve more slowly than that of the other； on account of
the large share of the profits which is consumed by the interest
of the loan。 The lands cultivated by the farmer must； in the same
manner； with only equal good conduct； be improved more slowly
than those cultivated by the proprietor； on account of the large
share of the produce which is consumed in the rent； and which；
had the farmer been proprietor； he might have employed in the
further improvement of the land。 The station of a farmer besides
is； from the nature of things； inferior to that of a proprietor。
Through the greater part of Europe the yeomanry are regarded as
an inferior rank of people； even to the better sort of tradesmen
and mechanics； and in all parts of Europe to the great merchants
and master manufacturers。 It can seldom happen； therefore； that a
man of any considerable stock should quit the superior in order
to place himself in an inferior station。 Even in the present
state of Europe； therefore； little stock is likely to go from any
other profession to the improvement of land in the way of
farming。 More does perhaps in Great Britain than in any other
country； though even there the great stocks which are； in some
places； employed in farming have generally been acquired by
farming； the trade； perhaps； in which of all others stock is
commonly acquired most slowly。 After small proprietors； however；
rich and great farmers are； in every country； the principal
improvers。 There are more such perhaps in England than in any
other European monarchy。 In the republican governments of Holland
and of Berne in Switzerland； the farmers are said to be not
inferior to those of England。
The ancient policy of Europe was； over and above all this；
unfavourable to the improvement and cultivation of land； whether
carried on by the proprietor or by the farmer； first； by the
general prohibition of the exportation of corn without a special
licence； which seems to have been a very universal regulation；
and secondly； by the restraints which were laid upon the inland
commerce； not only of corn； but of almost every other part of the
produce of the farm by the absurd laws against engrossers；
regrators； and forestallers； and by the privileges of fairs and
markets。 It has already been observed in what manner the
prohibition of the exportation of corn； together with some
encouragement given to the importation of foreign corn；
obstructed the cultivation of ancient Italy； naturally the most
fertile country in Europe； and at that time the seat of the
greatest empire in the world。 To what degree such restraints upon
the inland commerce of this commodity； joined to the general
prohibition of exportation； must have discouraged the cultivation
of countries less fertile and less favourably circumstanced； it
is