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r's Zeus right in declaring man to be 〃the most wretched of all the beasts of the field。〃
And yet one cannot help looking with a sort of awe （I dare not call it respect） at that melancholic faithless Hegesias。 Doubtless he； like his compeers； and indeed all Alexandria for three hundred years； cultivated philosophy with no more real purpose than it was cultivated by the graceless beaux…esprits of Louis XV。's court； and with as little practical effect on morality； but of this Hegesias alone it stands written； that his teaching actually made men do something； and moreover； do the most solemn and important thing which any man can do； excepting always doing right。 I must confess； however； that the result of his teaching took so unexpected a form； that the reigning Ptolemy； apparently Philadelphus； had to interfere with the sacred right of every man to talk as much nonsense as he likes； and forbade Hegesias to teach at Alexandria。 For Hegesias； a Cyrenaic like Theodorus； but a rather more morose pedant than that saucy and happy scoffer； having discovered that the great end of man was to avoid pain； also discovered （his digestion being probably in a disordered state） that there was so much more pain than pleasure in the world； as to make it a thoroughly disagreeable place； of which man was well rid at any price。 Whereon he wrote a book called； ＇Greek text： apokarteroon＇； in which a man who had determined to starve himself； preached the miseries of human life； and the blessings of death； with such overpowering force； that the book actually drove many persons to commit suicide； and escape from a world which was not fit to dwell in。 A fearful proof of how rotten the state of society was becoming； how desperate the minds of men； during those frightful centuries which immediately preceded the Christian era； and how fast was approaching that dark chaos of unbelief and unrighteousness； which Paul of Tarsus so analyses and describes in the first chapter of his Epistle to the Romanswhen the old light was lost； the old faiths extinct； the old reverence for the laws of family and national life； destroyed； yea even the natural instincts themselves perverted； that chaos whose darkness Juvenal； and Petronius； and Tacitus have proved； in their fearful pages； not to have been exaggerated by the more compassionate though more righteous Jew。
And now observe； that this selfishnessthis wholesome state of equilibriumthis philosophic calm； which is really only a lazy pride； was； as far as we can tell； the main object of all the schools from the time of Alexander to the Christian era。 We know very little of those Sceptics； Cynics； Epicureans； Academics； Peripatetics； Stoics； of whom there has been so much talk； except at second…hand； through the Romans； from whom Stoicism in after ages received a new and not ignoble life。 But this we do know of the later sets； that they gradually gave up the search for truth； and propounded to themselves as the great type for a philosopher； How shall a man save his own soul from this evil world？ They may have been right； it may have been the best thing to think about in those exhausted and decaying times： but it was a question of ethics； not of philosophy； in the sense which the old Greek sages put on that latter word。 Their object was； not to get at the laws of all things； but to fortify themselves against all things； each according to his scheme； and so to be self…sufficient and alone。 Even in the Stoics； who boldly and righteously asserted an immutable morality； this was the leading conception。 As has been well said of them：
〃If we reflect how deeply the feeling of an intercourse between men and a divine race superior to themselves had worked itself into the Greek characterwhat a number of fables； some beautiful； some impure； it had impregnated and procured credence forhow it sustained every form of polity and every system of laws； we may imagine what the effects must have been of its disappearance。 If it is possible for any man； it was not； certainly； possible for a Greek； to feel himself connected by any real bonds with his fellow…creatures around him； while he felt himself utterly separated from any being above his fellow…creatures。 But the sense of that isolation would affect different minds very differently。 It drove the Epicurean to consider how he might make a world in which he should live comfortably； without distracting visions of the past and future； and the dread of those upper powers who no longer awakened in him any feelings of sympathy。 It drove Zeno the Stoic to consider whether a man may not find enough in himself to satisfy him； though what is beyond him be ever so unfriendly。 。 。 。 We may trace in the productions which are attributed to Zone a very clear indication of the feeling which was at work in his mind。 He undertook； for instance； among other tasks； to answer Plato's 'Republic。' The truth that a man is a political being； which informs and pervades that book； was one which must have been particularly harassing to his mind； and which he felt must be got rid of； before he could hope to assert his doctrine of a man's solitary dignity。〃
Woe to the nation or the society in which this individualising and separating process is going on in the human mind！ Whether it take the form of a religion or of a philosophy； it is at once the sign and the cause of senility； decay； and death。 If man begins to forget that he is a social being； a member of a body； and that the only truths which can avail him anything； the only truths which are worthy objects of his philosophical search； are those which are equally true for every man； which will equally avail every man； which he must proclaim； as far as he can； to every man； from the proudest sage to the meanest outcast； he enters； I believe； into a lie； and helps forward the dissolution of that society of which he is a member。 I care little whether what he holds be true or not。 If it be true； he has made it a lie by appropriating it proudly and selfishly to himself； and by excluding others from it。 He has darkened his own power of vision by that act of self…appropriation； so that even if he sees a truth； he can only see it refractedly； discoloured by the medium of his own private likes and dislikes； and fulfils that great and truly philosophic law； that he who loveth not his brother is in darkness； and knoweth not whither he goeth。 And so it befell those old Greek schools。 It is out of our path to follow them to Italy； where sturdy old Roman patriots cursed them； and with good reason； as corrupting the morals of the young。 Our business is with Alexandria； and there； certainly； they did nothing for the elevation of humanity。 What culture they may have given； probably helped to make the Alexandrians； what Caesar calls them； the most ingenious of all nations： but righteous or valiant men it did not make them。 When； after the three great reigns of Soter； Philadelphus； and Euergetes； the race of the Ptolemies began to wear itself out； Alexandria fell morally； as its sovereigns fell； and during a miserable and shameful decline of a hundred and eighty years； sophists wrangled； pedants fought over accents and readings with the true odium gammaticum； and kings plunged deeper and deeper into the abysses of luxury and incest； laziness and cruelty； till the flood came； and swept them all away。 Cleopatra； the Helen of Egypt； betrayed her country to the Roman； and thenceforth the Alexandrians became slaves in all but name。
And now that Alexandria has become a tributary province； is it to share the usual lot of enslaved countries and lose all originality and vigour of thought？ Not so。 From this point； strangely enough； it begins to have a philosophy of its own。 Hitherto it has been importing Greek thought into Egypt and Syria； even to the furthest boundaries of Persia； and the whole East has become Greek： but it has received little in return。 The Indian Gymnosophists； or Brahmins； had little or no effect on Greek philosophy； except in the case of Pyrrho： the Persian Dualism still less。 The Egyptian symbolic nature…worship had been too gross to be regarded by the cultivated Alexandrian as anything but a barbaric superstition。 One eastern natio